AP Bio Fall Exam Study Guide 2024 PDF

AP Bio Fall Exam Study Guide 2024: 2nd period Exam Information ​Plan on using the entire exam period, though many of you may not need the full two hours ​It will be a mixture of multiple-choice and short answer questions. Most short answers will require no more than one sentence. Resources to use f...

AP Bio Fall Exam Study Guide 2024: 2nd period Exam Information ​Plan on using the entire exam period, though many of you may not need the full two hours ​It will be a mixture of multiple-choice and short answer questions. Most short answers will require no more than one sentence. Resources to use for studying ​Review video Master list: Amoeba sisters, Bozeman Science, crash course, Khan Academy ​Review study guides and analysis packets: skim to see if you understand the material ​Quizlets - easily found online ​Mastering Biology video list (the online textbook) - the videos are amazing ​AP Classroom videos and questions ​Root words list ​Diagrams from the handouts and textbook ​Study skills suggestions (Also on the Canvas homepage) ​Gizmos handbooks Study Methods ​Go through blank analysis packets (re-download) and check answers ​Have a study partner that you can ask questions to both solidify your understanding of the chapters as well as to seek different methods to reach the same resolve ​Writing note guides (focus on what you don’t know as well) ​Go through the study guide and have someone ask you the questions and then you answer it ​Use the vocab flashcards from the textbook website or Quizlets to see if you know main terms/ideas from each chapter ​Explain the material to yourself or another person Group goals for creating this study guide First. List concepts and terms and diagrams; comparisons can be valuable (e.g. active vs, passive immunity or gamete vs. somatic cell) Then: Rate each chapter 1-2-3: 1 means fewer questions, 3 means more questions 0. Experimental -​ *Independent Variable: The factor you are testing in the experiment Design -​ *Dependent Variable: Measures the response of the IV -​ *Control (variables): All factors that are kept the same Rating: -​ Experimental Group(s): receive the experimental treatment 2 -​ *Control Group(s): Used as basis for comparison -​ Negative Control Group: placebo, no treatment -​ Trials: The number of repetitions, objects or organisms tested at each level of IV -​ IV- x axis ; DV- y axis 2. Basic chemistry ​ 4 most naturally occurring elements: CHON ​ *basic molecular formulae (e.g. H2O) ​ energy levels of an electron: high/low shells; They gain energy they are closer to Rating: 2 the nucleus, then release energy as they move farther away ​ Bonds: how many atoms share the same pair(s) of electrons (single, double…) ​ Electronegativity: How strong an atom attracts electrons in a bond; Covalent Nonpolar bond (electrons equally shared), Covalent Polar bond (electrons shared unequally, eg. water) ​ **Shape and function: The molecule’s shape determines its function ​ *Hydrogen bonds: A form of covalent polar bonding; They break and reform quickly ○​ partial negative/positive charges (eg. hydrogen has a partial positive charge, oxygen has a partial negative) 3. Water -​ * Cohesion: The attraction of molecules of the same kind vs. Adhesion: The attraction of molecules of different kinds Rating: 2 -​ Capillary Action: spontaneous flow of liquid in narrow tubes (caused by cohesion & adhesion) -​ Surface Tension: liquid’s surface’s resistance to rupture (caused by cohesion) -​ Specific heat: amt. of heat needed for something to change temperature (water has a very high specific heat; stabilizes temperature) -​ Evaporative cooling: occurs when water evaporates from a surface carrying heat.It is important for regulating temperature in organisms * Hydrophobic: water repellent; nonpolar vs. Hydrophilic: affinity for water; polar/ionic ph 7= basic 4. Carbon ​ Carbon forms four bonds compounds ​ Isomer: Molecules that have the same molecular formula but have a different arrangement of the atoms in space Functional Groups Rating: 1 Molecular Group Functional Properties Formula (given) & structural formula (add) *Hydroxyl -OH -​ it’s polar due to electronegative oxygen. Forms hydrogen bonds with water, helping dissolve compounds such as sugar, hydrophilic -​ opposite to Methyl *Carboxyl -COOH -​ acts as acid, can donate H+ because of covalent bond between O and H is so polar, carbolic acid, organic acid -​ opposite to Amino *Amino -NH2 -​ acts as a base; can pick up H+ from the surrounding solution (water, in living organisms) Sulfhydryl -SH -​ two SH groups can react creating a cross link that helps stabilize protein structure -​ maintain healthy hair *Phosphate -PO4 -​ contributes 1- charge when inside chain of phosphate, 2- when at end, releases energy when attracted with water  Methyl -CH3 -​ affects the expression if genes when bonded to DNA or to protein that bind to DNA. affects the shape and function if ale and female sex hormones, hydrophobic -​ OPPOSITE to HYDROXYL 5. Structure & ​ Proteins, Carbohydrates, Nucleic Acids, Lipids (All macromolecules) Function of ​ Structure and function of macromolecules: biological ○​ Building blocks of each category molecules ​ Dehydration Synthesis vs Hydrolysis ​ Atoms →Monomers → Polymers ​ Metabolism Rating: 3 ○​ Catabolic: Destroy vs. Anabolic: Create ​ Protein Formation + levels of structure ​ Energy Levels- to move a shell farther from the nucleus an electron must gain energy; an electron releases energy when it moves to a closer shell ​ ​ 6. Cell types & ​ * Prokaryote vs eukaryote, plant vs. animal cells parts ​ parts of cell (structure & function): cytoplasm, nucleus, rough ER, smooth ER, lysosomes, vacuoles ​ KNOW THE FUNCTION OF EACH ^, be able to explain what would happen if Rating: 2 there was a malfunction of one organelle ​ Mitochondria vs. chloroplast ​ surface to volume ratio: what it means, why it’s important  ​ 7. Membrane ​ What makes up a cell membrane (phospholipids, two types of proteins) Structure & Cell ​ 6 categories of membrane protein functions (like transport, signal transduction, transport enzymic activity, etc.) ​ Why cell-cell recognition is important: basis for rejection of foreign cells by immune system/important line of defense in vertebrates Rating: 3 ​ *Osmosis -understanding what it is, the direction of flow, and hypo/hyper/iso terms: water goes where there is more solute (lower to higher solute concentration) ​ Pass easily through the membrane: hydrophobic, O2, CO2, lipids ​ NOT easily pass through the membrane: hydrophilic, glucose, other sugars ​ Types of transport proteins (channel proteins vs carrier proteins)  ​ Diffusion: each molecule moves randomly, yet diffusion of a population may be directional. facilitated diffusion: hydrophobic substrates diffuse through channels ​ Passive vs. active transport ​ phagocytosis/endocytosis vs exocytosis ​ * proton pumps, cotransport, and Na-K pump ​ 8. Intro to ​ Each enzyme fits a specific substrate like a lock and key Metabolism ​ Enzymes are affected by temperature, shape, pH, and chemicals (enzymes) ​ Proteins around the active site (where substrate fits into enzyme) catalyzes conversions of substrate to product ​ *enzymes increase the speed of reaction and function Rating: 3 ​ Inhibitors block the production of enzymes in an active site, slowing down the reaction ​ Exergonic: releases energy out vs. Endergonic: absorbs energy inward ​ Catabolic: release of energy by breaking down molecules into simple compounds (hydrolysis) vs. Anabolic: consume energy to build complex molecules from simple molecules (Dehydration Synthesis) ​ ADP + phosphate group recharges energy for ATP ​ Competitive inhibitor: trying to take the active site spot before substrate can get there to block it ​ Noncompetitive inhibitor/allosteric regulation: Binds to different spot (the allosteric site) on enzyme to change the shape of enzyme ​ Spontaneous: heat is released and the formation of products is favored without the influence of external factors. Many spontaneous reactions occur slowly due to activation energy/free energy ​ Non-spontaneous: heat is absorbed and requires energy in order to form the products  Add inhibition diagram? 9. Cellular ​ glycolysis - glucose is split into two pyruvates, releasing two ATP and two NADH, Respiration & creates 2 ATPS (cytoplasm) Fermentation ​ Krebs cycle(citric acid cycle) - two pyruvate split, carbon and oxygen are released as 4CO2,, creates 2 ATPS, releases 6NADH and 2 FADH2 (matrix) ​ ETC: energy from electrons is used to create proton gradient, which is used to Rating: 3 make ATP for the ATP synthase.Used up electrons are taken away by oxygen, and takes hydrogen ions to create water molecules (inner mitochondrial membrane) ​ cellular respiration produces ~32-35 ATP total ​ C6H12O6 + O2 = CO2 + H2O (+ATP) ​ Role of oxygen: removes useless electrons from the end of the transport chain ​ alcoholic fermentation - pyruvic acid produces alcohol and CO2 ○​ an example is yeast, when bread rises(you don’t get drunk because it evaporates while baking) ​ lactic acid fermentation - pyruvic acid produces lactic acid ○​ an example is humans where we use it for an extra supply of energy ​ 10. Photosynthesis ​ Stroma (maple syrup)= fluid-filled space surrounding grana ​ Thylakoids (pancakes)= structures within chloroplast that helps absorb light, site of light-dependent reactions Rating: 3 ​ Grana (stacks of pancakes)= stacks of thylakoids ​ 6CO2 + 6H20 ( & light) = C6 H12 O6 + 6O2 ​ Light dependent vs. light independent ​ No RuBisco= no life (an enzyme that grabs CO2 + fixes it, enabling the carbon cycle ​ Pigments= substances that absorb visible light ​ Absorption spectrum: showing how well a pigment absorbs specific wavelengths of light. vs. Action spectrum: shows the rate of photosynthesis for each wavelength, or which color is most effective in driving photosynthesis ○​ Chlorophyll reflects green light instead of absorbing it  ​ ​ Calvin cycle: carbon dioxide enters the leaf through stomata to fixate into organic carbon dioxide. ○​ uses the chemical energy of ATP and NADPH to reduce CO2 to sugar ​ Carbon fixation= 1st stage of Calvin cycle that incorporates carbon from CO2 into an organic molecule ​ Electron Flow: light is absorbed and gets the electrons in an “excited state” and is put in a cycle of releasing energy ○​ electrons are released from water and it gets transferred to NADP+ ○​ Photosystem II comes before Photosystem I ○​ 11. Cell ​ Ligand and receptor fit like lock and key communication ​ Signal Transduction Pathway ○​ Signal reception →Signal Transduction →Cellular Response** Rating: 3 ○​ ​ Types of cell signalling ○​ autocrine - signaling to itself ○​ juxtacrine - signalling to a touching cell ○​ paracrine - signalling to a nearby cell ○​ endocrine - signalling via the bloodstream (longer distances) ​ protein kinase - activates a molecule by transferring phosphate groups from ATP to it (phosphorylation) ​ phosphatase - deactivates a molecule by removing a phosphate (dephosphorylation) ​ ligand - a signalling molecule that binds to a membrane or cytoplasm protein receptor ​ cellular response - any specific cellular activity produced as a result of a signal transduction pathway ​ signalling amplification - phosphorylation cascade where each molecule activates another molecule ​ Intracellular receptor are found in cytoplasm or nucleus of target cells ​ Single ligand can lead to different responses from different pathways, receptor, relay molecules, and signaling molecules 12 Cell Cycle ​ G1(cell growth), S(DNA replication), G2(more growth and preparation for M), M(cell splits one time in Mitosis to end up with two cells containing the same amount of genetic information). Rating: 2 ​ Somatic cells vs gametes ​ Reasons for cell division unicellular vs. multicellular ​ Gametes contain half the original amount of chromosomes ​ Interphase ​ Density dependent inhibition and anchorage dependence ​ Mitosis vs cytokinesis (actual splitting of the cytoplasm). 13 Meiosis & ​ Meiosis 1 and 2 - original cell splits twice to result with half the chromosomes. Sexual Life ​ Sister Chromatids - Identical copies (splits in Meiosis 2) vs. Homologous pairs Cycles (splits in meiosis 1) - Similar chromosomes for the same trait containing different genes. ​ Sex Chromosomes: Sperm (XY) vs. Egg (XX) Rating: 3 ​ Centrioles, Spindle fibers, Centromere (fishing rod, fishing line, fish) Pulls chromosomes to one side creating another nucleus for another cell. Haploids (n) vs. Diploids (2n) - Haploids are cells with one set of chromosomes and Diploids are cells with two sets of chromosomes. **Genetic Variation- ​ Crossing over - exchange of DNA with touching chromosomes ​ Independent Assortment - alleles randomly separate and align ​ Random Fertilization - possible[ genetic] zygote variation ​ Meiosis is the opposite of Fertilization ; both needed for a zygote. Meiosis splits the chromosomes in half while fertilization combines 40 Basic Principles ​ Order of organization of Animal Form & Function Cells form tissues, Tissues form organs, Rating: 1 Organs form organ systems, Organ systems make up a complete organism ​ Endotherms and Ectotherms, ○​ endotherms rely on internal metabolic processes to maintain internal temperature, some methods used to stay cool are splooting (like the squirrels laying out on a rock to cool off) to release body heat, sweat when overly hot, and to stay warm they can shiver to create warmth  ○​ ectotherms rely on external sources for their warmth, some ways to maintain internal temperature are by laying in the sun to heat up, and seeking warm surfaces. To cool down they can burrow and find shady places to rest. ​ Negative Feedback vs. Positive Feedback ​ What is homeostasis? 43. Immune system ​ Innate (born with) Immunity: ○​ barrier defenses, white blood cells, phagocytic cells, natural killer cells, inflammatory response Rating: 3 ○​ heat ​ Adaptive (gained) Immunity: ○​ Cell Mediated Response vs. Humoral Response ​ B cells and T cells (helper and killer) ○​ B Cells: humoral response, secrete antibodies, deactivates and/or signals other cells to destroy pathogen ​ Clonal Selection: when B cells bind to an antigen, it clones itself some become long-term memory cells (that can identify the antigen later on), some become plasma cells that produce antibodies to fight right now (diagram on pg. 5 of Chp. 43 RG) ○​ Killer T Cells: cell-mediated response, release toxins that kill invading cells ○​ Helper T Cells: radio guy who alerts the others, activates humoral and cell mediated responses ​ Antigen vs. Antibody ○​ antibodies: interfere with pathogen’s ability to function (Mr. Incredible and the balls) or mark them for destruction ○​ Antigens: “antibody generator”, any molecule that causes a B or T cell response ​ Antigen recognition: by B Cells and Antibodies or by T Cells (diagrams on page 4 of Chp. 43 RG) ​ Allergens ○​ Allergies happen when your immune system reacts to a harmless antigen as if it was harmful ​ What is a pathogen? ​ Autoimmune & Immunodeficiency Diseases ○​ Autoimmune: (Auto = self) your immune system attacks the healthy cells of your organs and tissues by mistake ○​ Immunodeficiency: (deficient = not enough) a failure or absence of elements of the immune system ​ Primary and secondary immunity/ the two-hump graph ○​ Primary- pathogen enter your body and your immune system has to be activated in order to find ways to kill and fight off the virus. This is considered primary immunity because your body is learning how to respond to pathogens for the first time. ○​ secondary - If another pathogen enters your body, you will fight it off quicker because of earlier exposure 45 Hormones & the Feedback control of Blood glucose Endocrine -​ insulin and glucagon are released from the pancreas System -​ hormones are released directly into bloodstream through endocrine glands -​ blood concentration after eating a meal ( glucose, glucagon, insulin baseline and levels) Rating: 2 -​ The endocrine system relies on hormones that target all of the cells of the body -​ negative vs positive feedback -​ Hormones: Chemical messengers such as sex hormones, adrenaline, insulin  -​ Glands: pituitary, thyroid, adrenal, pancreas -​ lipid soluble hormones = Exit endocrine cells and defuse out across the membrane -​ Water soluble hormones= Secreted by exocytosis and travel freely in the bloodstream -​ Intracellular receptors ( center of the nucleus or cytoplasm), steroid hormone -​ cell surface receptors (outer surface of the target), triggers signal transduction -​ 48 Neurons, Parts of neuron: Synapses & -dendrites (receives signals) Signaling -cell body (processes signal) -axon (sends action Rating: 1.75 potentials) -synapse (the places where neurons communicate with each other) Membrane potential:  the charge difference between the inside of the cell (cytoplasm) and the outside of the cell *maintained by the sodium potassium pump (pumps 2 potassium in, 3 sodium out) How signals are sent down neurons: Depolarization: when the difference in charge between the inside and outside of the cell becomes smaller Action potential: when an explosion of electrical activity that is created by a depolarizing current is sent down the axon. Ligand-gated Ion Channel vs. Voltage gated ion channels: one is triggered by the binding of a ligand, the other is triggered by a change in membrane potential The whole process: neurotransmitters open ligand gated ion channels allowing depolarization to occur and when the membrane potential is disturbed enough the voltage gated ion channels open (positive feedback) further amplifying the depolarization until it reaches a threshold and the action potential is sent. After the action potential: the neuron repolarizes (with the sodium potassium pump) returning to membrane potential. 50 Sensory & 50.1 sensory receptors transduce signals to nervous system Motor ​ outside stimuli are picked up by receptors and transferred to neurons to formulate a Mechanisms response, this is perception ​ sensory receptor emit higher action potential frequencies based on pressure ​ Chemoreceptors sense shape of molecule - taste/smell Rating: 1 ​ Electromagnetic receptors detect light, electricity, and magnetism 50.2 hearing with mechanoreceptors ​ mechanoreceptors detect moving fluid to enable hearing ​ micro hairs vibrate differently at different frequencies 50.3 photoreceptors ​ light absorbing pigments enable sight in photoreceptors ​ different amount of photoreceptors are present in the rods and cones of the eye the more photoreceptors the more sensitive to light ​ binocular vision allows us to see in 3d with 2 eyes focusing on the same image  50.4 taste and smell ​ Taste relies on different molecules interacting with chemoreceptors in mouth and nose 50.5 muscle contraction ​ muscles are made of long alternating thin filaments and thick filaments ​ muscle contraction requires lots of ATP even to relax the muscle 50.6 skeletal systems ​ Exo-skeletons are outside the body - exo means outside made of chitin usually ​ endo is inside the body - endo is inside usually made of cartilage and bone Approximate number of questions on exam (I’ll fill this in later) Chapter # of points Exp Design/ graphing 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9-10 11 12-13 40 43 45 48 50 Total