APES Midterm Study Guide PDF

APES Midterm Study Guide Eutrophication Occurs when the environment becomes enriched with nutrients, causes algae blooms Nitrogen and phosphorus are main nutrients Phosphorus is a limiting factor because it cannot be dissolved in water Plants receive phosphates and nitrates through fertilizers Sur...

APES Midterm Study Guide Eutrophication Occurs when the environment becomes enriched with nutrients, causes algae blooms Nitrogen and phosphorus are main nutrients Phosphorus is a limiting factor because it cannot be dissolved in water Plants receive phosphates and nitrates through fertilizers Survivorship Curves Type one K-selected Lots of parental care Low death rates early on Likely to survive to old age Examples: humans, elephants Logistic growth Type two Equal chance of death throughout life Examples: squirrels Type Three R-selected Minimal parental care Lots of offspring High death rates early on Examples: trees ENSO Tropical eastern pacific ocean (peru) El Nino Conditions: warmer waters and lack of nutrients in water causing less fish in peru - atlantic has less hurricanes - Flooding, monsoons, high level rain in australia/indonisia La Nina: more upwelling (more nutrients/fish), Normal conditions: upwelling causes cooler water Plate boundaries Transform - side to side, transform fault Convergent - two plates are coming at each other, oceanic gets pushed under continental, subduction zone causes a trench *Ring of fire at least one plate gets subducted Divergent - mid atlantic ridge *Tsunami when a plate drops fills with water or rises and pushes water out Hotspots - volcano forms in the middle of a plate NPP & GPP GPP (gross primary productivity) - respiration = NPP (net primary productivity) GPP - photosynthesis NPP - whatever leftover and stored as biomass, can be passed to the next trophic level Population Bottleneck and Founders Effect Population bottleneck: High percent of individuals die, genetic diversity decreases, genes left of those that survived, it will take a long time to get diversity back Founder effect: similar colonization, when a new colony is started by a few members of the original population. This small population size means that the colony may have reduced genetic variation from the original population Age Structure Broad structure - wide on bottom - developing - poor living conditions - less access to food - high infant mortality - fast growth - ex: Kenya Triangular: Industrializing - slow growth ex: Bangladesh Even structure: Post industrialization - replacement level - urban - ex: New Zealand Upside Down: Post post industrialization - negative growth - ex: japan Rule of 70 70/growth rate = time for population to double Elevation/Mountains Rain shadow effect Windward side: relative humidity increases - adiabatic cooling - lots of rain - warm Leeward side: Adiabatic cooling - dry - relative humidity decreases ​ As elevation increases temperature and pressure decrease ​ As elevation decreases temperature and pressure decrease Trophic levels Producer (autotroph) - primary consumer (herbivore) - secondary consumer (carnivore) - tertiary consumer (carnivore) Keystone species - sustain ecosystem usually by controlling population of other species es: sea otters Seasons Based on tilt of earth on revolving around the sun If we didn't have tilt we would have the same season year round Poles facing certain way determine it Tropic of cancer and capricorn Salt Water Intrusion Put a well in to take water out Salt water in pore space and fresh water. As you draw water out the interspace of saltwater will move in land, close to a coast line drawing a lot of saltwater in your well Buffer Zones Riparian zones, buffer on it decreases erosion, keep things of riparian zones, reduce runoff, increase vegetation, having open areas increases for waters to infiltrate is good enough Monoculture vs Polyculture Monoculture Growing one crop on a field Positives: cost effective, more efficient, harvest at the same time, greater use of the same fertilizer Negatives: greater pesticide use, less genetic diversity (more likely to get disease and pests) Polyculture Growing multiple crops on a field Positives: vegetation to hold soil in place, less pesticides, high diversity Negatives: more expensive, harvest at different times GMO - reduce use of pesticides, more growing seasons, grow faster, but escaping genes, natural pesticide is now resistant Soil Horizons O and A: Most organic material - where leaf litter, detritus, and humus is - A is top soil E: Eluviated, zone of leaching, grey in color B: Alluviated solid, accumulation of oxides nutrients C: parent material R: bedrock Detritus: dead organic materials Humus: dark, organic material that forms in soil when plant and animal matter decays Laws of thermodynamics 1st law of thermodynamics: energy cannot be created or destroyed 2nd law of thermodynamics: the entropy (disorder) of an isolated system always increases over time Aquaculture Aquaculture, or fish farming, involves cultivating aquatic organisms such as fish, shellfish, and algae in controlled environments. It provides a sustainable alternative to wild fishing, reducing overfishing pressure. However, aquaculture can lead to habitat destruction, water pollution, and the spread of diseases if poorly managed. Innovations in sustainable aquaculture practices aim to minimize these impacts while meeting global seafood demand. CAFO and Free Range Pastures Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations (CAFOs) are industrial-scale farms where animals are raised in confined spaces for efficient production. While CAFOs produce large quantities of meat at low costs, they contribute to water pollution, greenhouse gas emissions, and animal welfare concerns. Free-range pastures, on the other hand, allow animals to graze and roam freely, promoting better animal welfare and reducing environmental impacts. However, free-range systems require more land and are often less efficient than CAFOs. Competitive Exclusion Principle The competitive exclusion principle states that two species competing for the same limited resources cannot coexist in the same niche indefinitely. One species will outcompete the other, leading to the exclusion or niche differentiation of the weaker competitor. This principle highlights the importance of resource partitioning in maintaining biodiversity and ecosystem balance. Composition of the Atmosphere 78 percent nitrogen, 21 percent oxygen, 0.9 percent argon, 0.1 percent other gases Convection Cells Convection cells are large-scale patterns of air movement caused by uneven heating of the Earth's surface. Warm air rises at the equator, cools, and sinks at higher latitudes, creating circulation patterns like Hadley, Ferrel, and Polar cells. These cells drive global wind systems and influence climate zones, weather patterns, and precipitation distribution. Energy & Biomass Pyramids Energy and biomass pyramids illustrate the flow of energy and matter in ecosystems. Energy pyramids show the decreasing energy available at each trophic level due to the 10% rule, where only about 10% of energy is transferred upward. Biomass pyramids depict the mass of living material at each trophic level, often decreasing as you move up the levels. Both highlight ecosystem efficiency and the importance of producers at the base. Externalities Externalities are costs or benefits of an activity that affect third parties not directly involved. Negative externalities, like pollution, impose costs on society, while positive externalities, such as pollination by bees, provide societal benefits. Addressing externalities often requires regulations or incentives to ensure fair resource use and environmental protection. Fishing Techniques Fishing techniques include trawling, longlining, and purse seining, among others. While effective for harvesting fish, some methods, like bottom trawling, damage marine habitats, and bycatch can harm non-target species. Sustainable techniques, such as pole-and-line fishing, help minimize environmental impacts and support ecosystem health. FreshWater Locations on Earth Freshwater is found in glaciers and ice caps (68%), groundwater (30%), and surface water such as rivers, lakes, and wetlands (2%). Surface water supports ecosystems and human needs, but overuse and pollution threaten these limited resources. Conservation and efficient management are essential to ensure availability. Growth (r) = B + Immigration - DR + Emigration Population growth rate (r) depends on births (B), deaths (DR), immigration, and emigration. Positive growth occurs when births and immigration exceed deaths and emigration. Negative growth happens when the reverse is true. This formula helps track population dynamics in different ecosystems. IPM (Mechanical and Biological Controls) Integrated Pest Management (IPM) combines mechanical, biological, and chemical methods to manage pests sustainably. Mechanical controls include traps and barriers, while biological controls involve natural predators or pathogens. IPM reduces reliance on harmful pesticides and minimizes environmental damage. Island Biogeography Island biogeography explains species diversity based on island size and distance from the mainland. Larger, closer islands support more species due to increased habitat availability and colonization rates. The theory applies to conservation, emphasizing the importance of habitat connectivity and size. Leaching Leaching is the process where water carries soluble nutrients or pollutants through soil, potentially reaching groundwater. It reduces soil fertility and can contaminate water sources. Practices like crop rotation and cover cropping can reduce leaching by enhancing soil retention. Nutrient Cycles (N, C, P, S) Nitrogen The nitrogen cycle describes the movement of nitrogen through the atmosphere, soil, water, and living organisms. Key processes include nitrogen fixation, where bacteria convert atmospheric nitrogen into usable forms like ammonia; nitrification, where ammonia is converted to nitrates and nitrites; and denitrification, where bacteria return nitrogen to the atmosphere. Human activities like fertilizer use and fossil fuel combustion disrupt the nitrogen cycle, leading to problems such as eutrophication and greenhouse gas emissions. Carbon The carbon cycle involves the exchange of carbon among the atmosphere, biosphere, hydrosphere, and geosphere. Carbon moves through processes like photosynthesis, where plants capture CO₂, and respiration, where organisms release CO₂ back into the atmosphere. Long-term storage occurs in fossil fuels and sediments, while burning fossil fuels and deforestation release stored carbon, driving climate change. The cycle is essential for regulating Earth's climate and supporting life. Phosphorus The phosphorus cycle is unique because it does not include a gaseous phase, focusing instead on the movement of phosphorus through soil, water, and organisms. Phosphorus originates from weathering rocks and is absorbed by plants, then moves up the food chain. Excess phosphorus from fertilizers and detergents can run off into water bodies, causing eutrophication. Sustainable management of phosphorus resources is critical for both agriculture and ecosystem health. Sulfur The sulfur cycle moves sulfur through the atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere. Sulfur is released into the atmosphere through volcanic eruptions, fossil fuel combustion, and decomposition. It then returns to the Earth via acid rain or sediment deposition. Sulfur is vital for protein synthesis in organisms, but excessive atmospheric sulfur can contribute to acid rain, harming ecosystems. Reducing emissions from industrial activities can help balance this cycle. Overfishing and How to Reduce Overfishing depletes fish stocks, disrupts ecosystems, and threatens food security. Solutions include catch limits, marine protected areas, and sustainable fishing certifications. Public awareness and policy enforcement are critical for success. Primary & Secondary Succession Primary succession occurs on bare surfaces without soil, such as after a volcanic eruption. Secondary succession happens in areas with existing soil, like after a forest fire. Both processes involve gradual changes in species composition over time. Reducing Runoff from Urban/Suburban Areas Runoff can be reduced by using permeable surfaces, rain gardens, and green roofs. These methods help absorb water and filter pollutants. Urban planning and stormwater management are crucial for protecting waterways. Total Fertility Rate and Replacement Level Fertility Total fertility rate is the average number of children per woman. Replacement level fertility is the rate needed to maintain population size, typically 2.1 in developed countries. High fertility rates drive growth, while low rates can cause population decline. Watersheds - Decreasing Erosion and Protecting Rivers Buffer zones with vegetation reduce erosion and filter runoff, protecting rivers. Practices like reforestation and sustainable farming also help maintain watershed health. Effective watershed management ensures clean water and ecosystem stability.