Understanding The Self Midterm Lecture Notes PDF

Understanding the Self Midterm Lecture Notes Prepared by: Adrian M. Segovia, RPm...

Understanding the Self Midterm Lecture Notes Prepared by: Adrian M. Segovia, RPm [email protected] Module 4: The Psychological Perspective of the Self awareness of this book or of a pencil. Conscious aware ness is a very small part of a person’s mental life. Psychology Defined Psychology is the scientific study of human behavior and mental processes. The psychological perspective of the self attempts to provide different views of the self with emphasis on the human psyche. Sigmund Freud’s The Psychodynamic Perspective Proposed by Sigmund Freud, the psychodynamic perspective of the self talks about the topographical and structural model of the mind. He suggested that people are driven by two instincts: Eros and Thanatos. The personality theory has been influenced more by Sigmund Freud than by anyone else. His system of psychoanalysis was the first formal theory of personality and is still the best known. Not only did Freud’s work affect thinking about personality in psychology and psychiatry, but it also made a tremendous impact on the way one looks 2. The preconscious. The preconscious includes memories of at human nature in general. events and experiences that can easily be retrieved with little effort. E.g. might include a previous examination taken, a Freud’s Drive Theory phone call to a friend, or a favorite dessert that was eaten In psychoanalysis, the terms instincts and drives are often used yesterday. interchangeably, but the term drive is more common. Originally, Freud 3. The unconscious. The container for memories and distinguished between emotions that are threatening to the conscious mind and self-preservative drives (including breathing, eating, must be pushed away. E.g. include hostile or sexual feelings drinking, and excreting) and toward a parent and forgotten childhood trauma or abuse. species-preservative drives (sexuality). Also included are needs and motivations of which individuals The psychic energy that emanates from sexual drives is known as are unaware. Although unconscious motivations are out of libido. awareness, they may still be exhibited in an individual’s thoughts or behaviors. In his early work, Freud believed that human motivation was sexual in the broad sense that individuals were motivated to bring Bringing unconscious material into conscious awareness is themselves pleasure. However, libido later came to be associated with a major therapeutic task. all life instincts and included the general goal of seeking to gain pleasure and avoid pain. When he was in his 60s, Freud put forth Structure of Personality the idea of a death instinct that accounted for aggressive drives Freud hypothesized three basic systems that are contained within (Mishne, 1993). These include unconscious desires to hurt others or the structure of personality: the id, the ego, and the superego. Briefly, oneself. Often conflict arises between the life instincts—eros and the the id represents unchecked biological forces, the superego is the death instincts—thanatos. voice of social conscience, and the ego is the rational thinking that mediates between the two and deals with reality. These are not three Freud’s Level of the Mind or Consciousness separate systems; they function together as a whole. Freud specified three levels of consciousness: 1. Id. At birth, the infant is all id. Inherited and physiological 1. The conscious. The conscious includes sensations and forces, such as hunger, thirst, and elimination, drive the experiences that the person is aware of at any point in time. infant. There is no conscious awareness, only unconscious E.g. include awareness of being warm or cold and behavior. The means of operation for the id is the pleasure principle. The newborn child invests all energy in gratifying ALL RIGHTS RESERVED No part of this document may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without permission in writing from course facilitator.  its needs (the pleasure principle). The infant then is said to Stage Erogenous Activity/ Fixation cathect (invest energy) in objects that will gratify its needs. zone Source of Investment of energy in an object such as a blanket or Pleasure nipple—object cathexis—is designed to reduce needs. The Oral Mouth Feeding, Underfed – primary process is a means for forming an image of (0-18 sucking, Insecurity something that can reduce the thwarted drive. months) swallowing 2. Ego. The ego must mediate between the world around the Overfed - infant and the instincts or drives within the infant. By waiting Dependency or suspending the pleasure principle, the ego follows the Anal Anus Toilet Rigid training – reality principle. For example, the young child learns to ask (18 months – training, anal retentive for food rather than to cry immediately when her needs are 3 years) withholding (malinis, masinop) not met. This realistic thinking is referred to as the secondary or expelling process, which is in marked contrast to the fantasizing of the feces Lax training – anal primary process. expulsive 3. Superego. Whereas the id and ego are aspects of the (burara like you, individual, the superego represents parental values and, dugyot) more broadly, society’s standards. Phallic Genitals Masturbation Oedipus complex 3.1. As the child incorporates the parents’ values, the ego (3 to 5/6 ideal is formed. It represents behaviors that parents years old) approve of Latency N/A N/A N/A 3.2. Whereas the conscience refers to behaviors (5/6 to disapproved of by parents. puberty) Genital Genitals Sexual Failure to Conflict among the Structures of Personality (Puberty and intercourse appreciate love When conflicts among the id, ego, and superego develop, anxiety above) and relationships. is likely to arise. It is the purpose of the ego and superego to channel instinctual energy through driving forces (cathexes) and restraining Oral stage. Lasting from birth to approximately 18 months, the oral forces (anticathexes). stage focuses on eating and sucking and involves the lips, mouth, and throat. Three Types of Anxiety Anal stage. Between the ages of about 18 months and 3 years, 1. Having an unfriendly person chase after us is an example of the anal area becomes the main source of pleasure. Exploration reality anxiety; the fear is from the external world, and the of bodily processes such as touching and playing with feces is anxiety is appropriate to the situation. important. During this period, the child develops bowel control, 2. Neurotic anxiety occurs when individuals are afraid that and conflicts around toilet training with parents can develop into they will not be able to control their feelings or instincts (id) personality characteristics in later life, and will do something for which they will be punished by o such as an over-concern with cleanliness and parents or other authority figures. orderliness (anal retentive) or disorderliness 3. When people are afraid they will violate parental or societal o and destructiveness (anal expulsive). standards (superego), moral anxiety is experienced. Not only do children establish control over their own bodies, but also, they are attempting to achieve control over others. In order for the ego to cope with anxiety, defense mechanisms are Phallic stage. Lasting from the age of about 3 until 5 or 6, the necessary. source of sexual gratification shifts from the anal region to the genital area. At this age, stroking and manipulation of the penis Psychosexual Stages of Development or clitoris produces sensual pleasure. Freud believed that the development of personality and the o The concept of castration anxiety comes from the boy’s formation of the id, ego, and superego, as well as ego defense fear that his penis may be cut off or removed. If he had mechanisms, depend on the course of psychosexual development in observed a nude girl, he might have believed that she had the first 5 or 6 years of life. The psychosexual oral, anal, and phallic already lost her penis. stages occur before the age of 5 or 6; then there is a relatively calm o The concept of penis envy refers to girls who wondered why period for 6 years (the latency period), followed by the genital stage in they lacked penises and thought that perhaps they had done adolescence, which starts at the beginning of puberty. something wrong to lose their penises. o Oedipus complex in boys or the Electra complex in girls Freud’s theory is based on biological drives and the importance of (although this latter idea was dropped in Freud’s later the pleasure principle; thus, certain parts of the body are thought to be writings). The Oedipus complex refers to the boy’s sexual a significant focus of pleasure during different periods of development love for his mother and hostility for his father. (Freud, 1923). Freud believed that infants receive a general sexual o Difficulties in this stage of development may result in later gratification in various parts of the body that gradually becomes more sexual identity problems affecting relationships with the localized to the genital area. same or other sex. Latency. When the conflicts of the Oedipus complex are resolved, the child enters the latency period. Lasting roughly from the ages of 6 to 12 (or puberty), the latency period is not a psychosexual  stage of development because at this point sexual energy (as well unconscious may be experiences that are trivial or unrelated to as oral and anal impulses) is channeled elsewhere. present functioning. Sometimes thoughts, memories, and Genital stage. Beginning in early adolescence, about the age of feelings are associated with each other or represent a theme. 12, the genital stage continues throughout life. Freud concerned o This related material, when it has an emotional impact himself with childhood development rather than adult on an individual, is called a complex. It is the development. In the genital stage, the focus of sexual energy is emotionality of a complex that distinguishes it from toward members of the other sex rather than toward self- groups of related thoughts that have little emotional pleasure (masturbation). impact on the individual. The collective unconscious. The term collective denotes Carl Jung’s Psychoanalytic Psychology materials that are common to all humans and significant to them. Sigmund Freud once designated Carl Jung as his spiritual son and The collective unconscious refers to “an inherited tendency of the heir, and Jung went on to develop his theory of personality, which human mind to form representations of mythological motifs— differed dramatically from orthodox psychoanalysis. He fashioned a representations that vary a great deal without losing their basic new and elaborate explanation of human nature quite unlike any other, pattern” (Jung, 1970a, p. 228). which he called analytical psychology. o Archetypes. Archetypes are pathways from the collective unconscious to the conscious, which may Jung’s Level of the Mind or Consciousness lead to an action. Jung was interested in archetypes that have emotional content and strength and that have endured for thousands of years. Jung’s Stages of Life and Personality Development He divided life into four basic stages: childhood, youth and young adulthood, middle age, and old age. The life stage that he was most interested in and wrote most frequently about is that of middle age. Childhood. Jung believed that psychic energy of children was primarily instinctual—eating, sleeping, and so forth. The parental role is to direct children’s energy so that they do not become chaotic and undisciplined. Jung felt that most of the problems of childhood were due to problems at home. If the problems of either or both parents could be resolved, then children’s disobedient behavior and other problems would be lessened. Youth and young adulthood. Adolescents may develop a variety of problems as they are faced with many life decisions, such as choice of schooling and career. To cope with their problems, adolescents must develop an effective persona to deal with the world based on their own dominant function rather than the one imposed by parental expectations. As they enter the period of young adulthood, individuals discover their own personality and develop an understanding of their own persona. Middle age. As individuals become established in their careers, The conscious level. The conscious level is the only level that their families, and their communities, they may be aware of individuals can know directly. Starting at birth, it continues to grow experiencing a feeling of meaninglessness or loss in their lives. A throughout life. As individuals grow, they become different from others. This process, referred to as individuation by Jung variety of issues can be encountered at middle age or in the transition from adolescence to middle age. For example, Jung (1959b, p. 275), has as its purpose the goal of knowing oneself identifies the puer aeternus, the man who has difficulty growing as completely as possible. This can be achieved, in part, by bringing unconscious contents into “relationship with out of adolescence and becoming self-responsible, as he is consciousness” (Jung, 1961, p. 187). As individuals increase their attached unconsciously to his mother. The term puella aeterna, consciousness, they also develop greater individuation. At the where the attachment is to the father, is used for the woman who has difficulty accepting the responsibilities of adulthood. center of the conscious processes is the ego. Old age. Jung believed that in old age individuals spend more and The ego refers to the means of organizing the conscious mind. The ego selects those perceptions, thoughts, memories, and more time in their unconscious. However, Jung felt that older feelings that will become conscious. individuals should devote time to understanding their life experiences and deriving meaning from them. For Jung, old age The personal unconscious. Experiences, thoughts, feelings, and was a time to reflect and to develop wisdom. Older individuals perceptions that are not admitted by the ego are stored in the often thought about the topics of death and mortality, an issue personal unconscious. Materials stored in the personal reflected in Jung’s writings and dreams. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED No part of this document may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without permission in writing from course facilitator.  4 or 5, people have already formed a basic framework of how they will Alfred Adler’s Individual Psychology handle life’s challenges and strive for superiority. Adler identified four Adler’s theory of personality stresses the unique motivations of primary types of styles of life, each shaped by an individual’s level of individuals and the importance of each person’s perceived niche in activity and their attitude toward social interest. society. Alfred Adler fashioned an image of human nature that did not 1. The Ruling-Dominant Type. This type of person strives for portray people as victims of instincts, biological forces, or childhood control, power, and dominance over others, often at the experiences. He called his approach to human nature of individual expense of social interest. They may be aggressive, psychology, which focused on the uniqueness of each person and controlling, or manipulative, and their primary focus is on denied the universality of biological motives and goals. asserting superiority. These individuals exhibit high activity levels but lack social interest, leading them to achieve their Inferiority and Superiority Feelings goals by dominating or using others. They may have 1. Inferiority Feelings. Adler argued that humans are born difficulty forming cooperative relationships and can struggle with a natural sense of inferiority because, as children, they with empathy.. are weak and dependent on others for survival. This feeling 2. The Getting-Leaning Type. People of this type have low of inferiority is not inherently negative; it is a normal part of levels of social interest and rely on others to solve their development. These feelings motivate individuals to strive problems. They exhibit low activity and tend to be for personal growth and success, pushing them to overcome dependent, seeking support and help from those around obstacles and improve themselves. According to Adler, them. Rather than striving to overcome challenges feelings of inferiority are the foundation of all human striving independently, they lean on others, which can result in and represent a driving force for improvement. passivity and a lack of personal development. 2. Compensation. Compensation refers to an individual’s 3. The Avoiding Type. This type avoids life’s challenges and attempt to overcome perceived or actual weaknesses by risks altogether. They demonstrate low activity levels and developing skills or behaviors to counterbalance these have little social interest. By evading challenges, they deficiencies. For Adler, compensation is a key psychological prevent themselves from facing failure but also miss out on mechanism. For example, a person who feels physically personal growth. This avoidance often leads to isolation and weak might compensate by excelling in intellectual pursuits a lack of meaningful relationships. They avoid tasks that or athletics. Compensation helps individuals deal with their might lead to defeat or challenge, preferring to remain in feelings of inferiority in a constructive manner, fostering their comfort zone. growth and adaptation. 4. The Socially Useful Type. This is the healthiest style of life, 3. Inferiority Complex. When feelings of inferiority become according to Adler. Individuals with this type of lifestyle are overwhelming or are not appropriately compensated for, an socially engaged and act in ways that benefit both individual may develop an inferiority complex. This complex themselves and others. They have high activity levels and a manifests as a persistent sense of inadequacy, self-doubt, strong sense of social interest. These individuals strive to and low self-esteem, leading to a withdrawal from overcome feelings of inferiority by contributing to their challenges and a diminished sense of self-worth. Adler community and forming meaningful relationships, believed that the inferiority complex can hinder personal demonstrating empathy, cooperation, and a desire to make development, preventing individuals from fulfilling their a positive impact. potential or engaging in meaningful social interactions. 4. Superiority Complex. In contrast to the inferiority complex, Module 5: Physical Aspect of the Self some individuals might react to their feelings of inferiority by developing a superiority complex. This involves an Brain and Behavior exaggerated sense of one’s own abilities, accomplishments, Understanding the brain is of utmost importance in understanding or importance, often masking deeper feelings of inferiority. a person's behavior. The brain, as our master, is linked to different People with a superiority complex tend to boast or exhibit aspects of our behavior and personality. arrogance to conceal their underlying insecurities. Adler saw this as an unhealthy form of compensation, where individuals seek to assert their dominance over others rather Neurons: The Basic Building Blocks of Life than truly overcoming their challenges. 5. Superiority Striving. Adler emphasized that striving for superiority is a natural and healthy response to feelings of inferiority, but he distinguished this from the superiority complex. Superiority striving refers to the desire for personal growth, mastery, and success that benefits not only the individual but also the community. In this context, superiority does not mean being better than others, but rather achieving one’s full potential and contributing positively to society. The Style of Life Alfred Adler’s concept of Style of Life refers to the unique ways individuals navigate life and pursue their goals based on their perceptions of self, others, and the world. According to Adler, by age  These highly specialized cells are responsible for receiving and Occipital lobe. Interpretation of visual information. transmitting information from one part of the body to another. Ipsilateral vs Contralateral Processing Ipsilateral reactions are those for which the side of reaction Basic Parts of the Neuron: and the side of stimulation are identical. 1. Dendrites. Branching fibers that extend from the cell body get Contralateral reactions are the opposite; the side of narrower at their end. The dendrite’s surface is lined with stimulation and the side of reaction are not identical. specialized synaptic receptors, at which the dendrite receives information from other neurons. 2. Cell body (soma). The cell body contains the nucleus, ribosomes, mitochondria, and other structures found in most cells. 3. Axon. A long, thin fiber (usually longer than dendrites) is the information-sending part of the neuron, sending an electrical impulse toward other neurons, glands, or muscles. 4. Myelin sheath. Insulating covering that is found on some vertebrate axons. 5. Nodes of Ranvier. Interruptions along the myelin sheath. 6. Presynaptic terminal (end bulb). Swelling at the tip of the axon. The part of the neuron that releases chemicals that cross the junction between one neuron and the next. Lobes of the Brain The visual field as contralateral. This means that all of the information from one-half of the visual field is carried in the contralateral optic tract; that is, the left hemifield is 'viewed' by the right hemisphere and vice versa. The Role of Neurotransmitters Neurotransmitters are chemical found in the synaptic vesicles which, when released, affects the next cell. Neurotransmitters can be classified based on their actions: 1. Excitatory neurotransmitters. These neurotransmitters Frontal lobe. Motor behavior, expressive language, higher have excitatory effects on the neuron, meaning they cognitive processes and orientation to person (place, time, increase the likelihood that the neuron will fire an action situation). potential. o Contains the Broca’s area, which is responsible 2. Inhibitory neurotransmitters. These neurotransmitters for expressive language. Damage to Broca’s have inhibitory effects on the neuron; they decrease the area is known as Broca’s aphasia, which is a likelihood that the neuron will fire an action potential. non-fluent aphasia in which the output of 3. Modulatory neurotransmitters. These neurotransmitters spontaneous speech is markedly diminished and regulate populations of neurons, while also operating over a there is a loss of normal grammatical structure slower time course than excitatory and inhibitory Parietal lobe. Involved in the processing of touch, pressure, transmitters. temperature and pain. Temporal lobe. Receptive language, involved in receiving Happy Chemicals and processing auditory information, as well as memory and 1. Serotonin. The calm chemical. emotions. 2. Dopamine. The reward chemical. o Contains the Wernicke’s area, which is 3. Oxytocin. The love chemical. responsible for receptive language. Damage to 4. Endorphin. The will-power chemical. the Wernicke’s area is known as Wernicke’s aphasia, which is characterized by impaired Theories of Physical Self language comprehension ALL RIGHTS RESERVED No part of this document may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without permission in writing from course facilitator.  1. Physiognomy. A discarded 19th-century Module 6: Sexual Aspect of the Self pseudoscience suggests that a person's physical characteristics, such as facial features and expressions and Understanding and experiencing the self includes the discussion body structures, could be related to a person's character or of biological factors of sexual behaviors that consists of the personality. reproductive system and the sex characteristics that differ between 2. Body-type Theory. Proposed by William Sheldon, he man and woman. Distinguish between love, attraction, and attachment believes that personality is based on a person's body. and the sexual response cycle. Ectomorph is characterized by a thin, wiry frame. Ectomorphs are quiet, restrained, noon-assertive, Sex as the Physical Aspect of Sexuality sensitive, introverted, artistic, and self-conscious. Mesomorph, with a solid, muscular frame. Sex chromosome, either of a pair of chromosomes that determine Mesomorphs are active, assertive, vigorous, whether an individual is male (XY) or female (XX). adventurous, dominant, and competitive. Endomorph, heavy and rounded. Endomorphs (also Primary sex characteristics. known as viscerotonic) were seen as relaxed, sociable, Penis. Male sex organ tolerant, comfort-loving, peaceful, good-humored, and Testes. The male sex glands in need of affection. Prostate gland. Gland that secretes most of the fluid holding the male sex cells or sperm Primary sex characteristics. Vagina. The tube that leads from the outside of a female’s body to the opening of the womb Uterus. The womb in which the baby grows during pregnancy Ovaries. The female sexual glands Menarche and spermarche symbolize the transition to reproductive maturity during puberty, signify significant milestones in physical development. Menarche refers to the first menstrual cycle in girls, while spermarche denotes the beginning of viable sperm production in boys. Secondary Sex Characteristics Male Female Enlarged larynx Widening hips Disorders Related to Physical Self Deepening voice Breast development 1. Body dysmorphic disorder. A distinct mental disorder in Facial and chest hair Pubic hair which a person is preoccupied with an imagined physical Pubic hair Fat deposits defect or a minor defect that others frequently fail to notice. Coarser skin texture Further growth and 2. Anorexia nervosa. Obsessive fear of gaining weight, development of the uterus, refusal to maintain healthy body weight, and an unrealistic vagina, and ovaries body image perception They severely restrict their food Large increase in height Widening hips intake and consider themselves overweight even when they are underweight. Intersex. Chromosomal or hormonal defects can result in ambiguous 3. Bulimia Nervosa. Characterized by binge eating followed organs — intersexed individuals. by compensatory behaviors such as forced vomiting, excessive exercise, or excessive use of laxatives or diuretics Proximodistal vs Cephalocaudal Development They may be concerned about gaining weight and be In cephalocaudal growth, growth starts from the head and dissatisfied with their body size and shape. moves down to the feet. 4. Binge Eating Disorder. Loss of eating control regularly. In proximodistal growth, growth starts from the torso, or the Binge eating episodes are not followed by compensatory body's center, and moves outwards, to the arms and the behaviors such as purging, fasting, or excessive exercise. legs. Many people with BED are obese and at a higher risk of developing other conditions, such as cardiovascular Gender: Psychological Side of Sexuality disease. Whereas sex can be defined as the physical characteristics of being male or female, gender is defined as the psychological aspects of being masculine or feminine. The Genderbread Person o In women, the outer part of the vagina swells with increased amounts of blood to that area, while the clitoris retracts under the clitoral hood but remains highly sensitive. The outer lips of the vagina become redder in color. o In men, the penis becomes more erect and may release a few drops of fluid. At this point, it is unlikely that the male will lose his erection. This phase may last only a few seconds to several minutes. 3. Orgasm stage. The third phase is the shortest of the three stages and involves a series of rhythmic muscular contractions known as the orgasm. Gender Identity. Is how you, in your head, think about yourself. It’s the chemistry that composes you (e.g., hormonal levels) and how you interpret what that means. Gender Expression. Is how you demonstrate your gender (based on traditional gender roles) through the ways you act, dress, behave, and interact. Biological Sex. Refers to the objectively measurable organs, hormones, and chromosomes. Sexual Orientation. Is who you are physically, spiritually, and emotionally attracted to based on their sex/gender in relation to your own. Gender Differences 1. Emotional Expression. Males tend to talk with each other in a “report” style. Females tend to talk to each other in a “relate” style 2. Cognitive Skills. Male advantage in mathematical and spatial skills. Female superiority in verbal skills Human Sexual Behavior William Masters and Virginia Johnson found that the biological responses of males and females to sexual stimulation are quite similar. They use the term sexual-response cycle to describe the changes in the body as men and women become sexually aroused. They divide o In women, this involves the muscles of the vaginal the sexual-response cycle into four phases: excitement or arousal, walls and can happen multiple times, lasting plateau, orgasm, and resolution. slightly longer than the orgasm experience of the male. 1. Excitement or arousal stage. This first phase is the o In men, the orgasmic contractions of the muscles beginning of sexual arousal and can last anywhere from 1 in and around the penis trigger the release of minute to several hours. semen, the fluid that contains the male sex cells, o In women, the clitoris swells, the lips of the vagina or sperm. open, and the inside of the vagina moistens in 4. Resolution stage. The final phase of the sexual response preparation for intercourse. is resolution, the return of the body to its normal state before o In men, the penis becomes erect, the testes pull arousal began. up, and the skin of the scrotum tightens. Nipples o In women, the clitoris retracts, the color of the will harden and become more erect in both sexes, vaginal lips returns to normal, and the lips close but especially in the female. once more. 2. Plateau stage. In the second phase of the sexual response, o In men, the erection is lost, the testes descend, the physical changes that began in the first phase are and the scrotal sac thins again. continued. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED No part of this document may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without permission in writing from course facilitator. An Overview of Sexual Dysfunctions 7. Sexual Masochism Disorder. In sexual masochism, a Before we describe sexual dysfunction, it’s important to note that the person experiences sexual stimulation and gratification from problems that arise in the context of sexual interactions may occur in the experience of pain and degradation in relating to a lover. both heterosexual and homosexual relationships. 8. Pedophilic Disorder. Perhaps the most tragic sexual deviance is sexual attraction to children (or young 1. Sexual Desire Disorders adolescents generally aged 13 years or younger), called o Sexual aversion disorder. Fear and disgust of sexual pedophilia. contact. o Hypoactive sexual desire disorder. Ongoing, abnormally low desire for sexual activity. o In females, low sexual interest is almost always accompanied by a diminished ability to become excited or aroused by erotic cues or sexual activity. Thus, deficits in interest or the ability to become aroused in women are combined with female sexual interest/arousal disorder. 2. Sexual Arousal Disorders o Male erectile disorder. A male cannot maintain an erection long enough to complete the sexual act. o Female sexual interest/arousal disorder. Little or no desire to have sex. 3. Orgasmic Disorders o Males who achieve orgasm only with great difficulty or not at all meet criteria for a condition called delayed ejaculation. In women, the condition is referred to as a female orgasmic disorder. o A far more common male orgasmic disorder is premature ejaculation, ejaculation that occurs well before the man and his partner wish it to. 4. Sexual Pain Disorders o A sexual dysfunction specific to women refers to difficulties with penetration during attempted intercourse or significant pain during intercourse. This disorder is called genito-pelvic pain/penetration disorder (vaginismus). Paraphilic Disorders Paraphilia is a disorder in which the person either prefers, or must, achieve sexual arousal and fulfillment through sexual behavior that is unusual or not socially acceptable. 1. Fetishistic Disorder. Fetishistic disorder, a person is sexually attracted to nonliving objects. There are almost as many types of fetishes as objects, although women’s undergarments and shoes are popular. 2. Frotteuristic Disorder. Frotteurism is sexual excitement at rubbing one’s genitals against, or touching, the body of a nonconsenting person. 3. Voyeuristic Disorder. The voyeuristic disorder is the practice of observing, to become aroused, an unsuspecting individual undressing or naked. 4. Exhibitionistic Disorder. Exhibitionistic disorder, by contrast, is achieving sexual arousal and gratification by exposing genitals to unsuspecting strangers. 5. Transvestic Disorder. In transvestic disorder, sexual arousal is strongly associated with the act of (or fantasies of) dressing in clothes of the opposite sex or cross-dressing. 6. Sexual Sadism Disorder. For a diagnosis of sexual sadism, a person must have recurrent, intense sexually arousing fantasies, urges, or behaviors that involve inflicting psychological or physical pain on another individual.