Needs Analysis PDF

Chapter 3 Needs Analysis “Los textos han sido seleccionados para el uso exclusivo de los alumnos del presente curso. Queda prohibida su difusión y reproducción por cualquier medio o procedimiento total o parcial, fuera del marco del presente curso.” Source: iStock 27512081. “Why is it that our t...

Chapter 3 Needs Analysis “Los textos han sido seleccionados para el uso exclusivo de los alumnos del presente curso. Queda prohibida su difusión y reproducción por cualquier medio o procedimiento total o parcial, fuera del marco del presente curso.” Source: iStock 27512081. “Why is it that our teacher candidates’ passing rate for the Teacher Performance Assessment is lower than the state average? Why are 25% not passing?” Hannah asked herself these questions after reading the summary data provided by the State Department of Education. Although the answers to these questions were not clear, one thing was: As department chair for elementary edu- cation, Hannah knew she must address the problem. A teacher candidate who did not pass the assessment was not eligible for a teaching credential. At a nonprofit organization, Terrence has been told by his supervisor that the number of complaints about the call center volunteers had significantly increased over the past three months. Terrence was given the tasks of exploring why the sudden increase had occurred and what possible solutions could be implemented to lower the number of complaints. Both Hannah and Terrence should conduct a needs analysis to gather information that will allow each to fully understand the problem they face. In doing so, each will be able to clearly identify the particular needs that must be met in order to solve the problem each is up against. Guiding Questions â ¢ What is a needs analysis? â ¢ Why is it important to conduct a needs analysis? â ¢ What do experts in instructional design recommend about conducting a needs analysis? 44â … Needs, Task, and Learner Analysis â ¢ What steps should an instructional designer follow to conduct a successful needs analysis? â ¢ What is the final outcome of a needs analysis? â ¢ How can an instructional designer evaluate the effectiveness of a needs analysis? Key Terms goal analysis (page 50) needs analysis (page 44) needs assessment (page 49) performance analysis (page 47) Chapter Overview Instructional design is conducted for a purpose. That purpose is to help produce a desired change. The change could be many things, such as an improvement in attitudes of employ- ees toward a particular job task, an increase in knowledge of students taking a high school history course, or an upgrade of the skill level of consumers using a new word processor. Therefore, an early step—if not the first step—in the instructional design process is to identify the change that is requested and the different variables surrounding this change. These variables include identifying the desired change that needs to occur, who wants the change, and in what environment this change should occur. This process constitutes a needs analysis. The information gathered during a needs analysis will help the instruc- tional designer to be clear about what instruction needs to be developed or if instruction is even necessary to help bring about the desired change. As with all phases of the instructional design process, there are various perspectives for how a needs analysis might be approached and carried out. In this chapter, we will explore a variety of perspectives held by instructional design experts regarding needs analysis. Additionally, we will discuss how to conduct a thorough needs analysis to help ensure that proper data are collected that will accurately inform how the instructional designer should proceed through the instructional design process. Finally, a number of different methods for evaluating whether the needs analysis conducted was successful are described. Needs Analysis: An Overview As mentioned in the previous section, instructional design is carried out for a purpose: to bring about a particular change. Typically, the change is a need to improve performance of some kind. Attitudes, knowledge, and skills are all areas in which improvement might be needed. Therefore, the need to improve performance can take on different forms, such as increasing a student’s knowledge of a particular content area, increasing the productivity of a factory worker, or increasing consumer ease in using a new product. It is generally the job of an instructional designer to help determine exactly what the change is that needs to occur. The instructional designer comes into an environment and determines what needs to take place based on what is going on in the environment. On other occasions, however, an instructional designer may be told upfront what change is needed. Although this may be the case, the instructional designer is wise to confirm that need by getting others’ perspectives on the situation. With either scenario, the instruc- tional designer is being asked to solve a problem by identifying the problem and coming up with a solution to help solve it.  Needs Analysisâ … 45 Instructional designers use a needs analysis process to get at the source of the prob- lem. In order to do this, specific information is needed. This information is gathered by the instructional designer through various means, such as interviews, observations, and reviews of available artifacts. The information gathered is then used to inform how the rest of the instructional design process will be carried out. Professionals in Practice The success of any ID project starts and ends with a person. In my case, it’s a person who needs to understand how to implement a complex hardware and software solution for protecting their public-facing web applications (think banks and credit cards, health care providers, online merchants, etc.) from external threats. The primary ID questions first invoke a goal statement: What is the goal of this training and how do we measure its suc- cess? The second is a task analysis tied to the goal: What does someone need to be able to do in order to successfully implement our solution? From an ID perspective, we try to ensure that the instructional events impart a knowledge of “why” a concept is introduced at a specific point of the instruction, and “why” completion of certain tasks needs to occur before we move to the next concept or task. Knowing “why” is more important that knowing “what” or “how.” It’s the classical differentiation between training and education. Think about all of the online transactions you make every day— checking email, paying bills, shopping—all of these transactions are based on your interactions with a web application that was designed and engineered to allow you to complete specific tasks. However, no web applications are created and operated in the same way. Consequently, our product, a web application firewall, is not implemented in the same way for each applica- tion that it ultimately protects. So, before beginning any content creation, we need to establish what successful training outcomes are, and how to achieve those outcomes. Erik Novak Technical Training Director F5 Networks Needs Analysis Questions A typical needs analysis attempts to provide information that will help answer the following questions: What is the change being requested (including who is being asked to change and what is currently taking place)? Who is requesting this change? Where will this change need to take place? Is instruction the most appropriate means for bringing about the desired change? It is the job of the instructional designer to find answers to these questions in order to help design, develop, and implement an elegant solution—one that is both efficient and effective in providing the appropriate change. 46â … Needs, Task, and Learner Analysis Professionals in Practice When beginning a new project, the best place to start is to consult with the instructor or SME. This is the time for you to get a basic understanding of the topic and find out if this is a completely new instruction or if it is just a redesign/online translation. For most of the projects that I work on, it is the latter, meaning that it is material that is already being delivered face-to-face and is now going to be delivered online. In some ways this is an advantage because you have a baseline by which you can measure successes and failures against several course design elements. The most important items that I need to know from the start are: 1 Who is my audience? 2 What are the goals/learning objectives? 3 How can I get creative with my assessments? Kara Andrew Manager, Instructional Design University Extended Education California State University, Fullerton Formal and Informal Needs Analysis A needs analysis plays a critical role at the beginning of the instructional design process because it helps an instructional designer identify the problem that needs to be solved. A needs analysis provides information that allows an instructional designer to get to the core of the problem. If little or nothing is known about the problem, then a full-scale needs analysis is necessary. There are situations, however, where an instructional designer does not carry out a full-scale needs analysis because he or she is brought into the instruc- tional design process at a stage where the client has already clearly determined what the problem is and has possibly even identified why it may be occurring. If this is the case, the instructional designer does not need to conduct a formal needs analysis because infor- mation that would be gained from doing so most likely currently exists and would be a waste of resources. Faced with this scenario, the instructional designer would start with understanding what information has been gathered. After finding this information, the instructional designer would then determine what additional information is needed. Professionals in Practice The first element I like to analyze is the overall outcome. I want to clearly understand what is the intended outcome of the ID project. Before I can truly analyze anything, I need to know the desired end result. Understanding this leads me to considering the objective or objectives of the instruction. As much as possible, I try to analyze the learners who will be part of the instruction, as well, before I start designing the instruction and developing instructional materials. Jody Peerless Academic Coach in Educational Technology La Habra City School District  Needs Analysisâ … 47 Professionals in Practice An instructional design project is just that, a project developing an instructional design product. When I start an ID project I use standard (as defined by the Project Management Institute PMBOK Guide) project management methodology. I hold a kickoff meeting with the key stakeholders of the project to determine several things: what is the business objective of the project (e.g., be more productive with a new piece of software, meet compliance regulations, address a performance gap); determine that this objective can be addressed through a learning intervention; if it can be addressed, for whom, when, where, and how should it be addressed (size and demographics of the target audience, on-site or remote, immediately or over time, online or classroom, etc.); and, last but not least, the budget for the learning solution. Ken Hubbell Senior Manager, Learning Technology Ingersoll Rand University, Ingersoll Rand plc It is not clear to Hannah the approach she should take. Her instincts are telling her that training is needed for the instructors in her department who are working with the teacher candidates on the teaching performance assessments. However, what the specific training needs may be are not clear. She needs to have a clearer understanding of what is taking place in the core courses in the credential programs to lead to the teacher candidates failing the assessment. Terrence contemplates the problem his organization is having with call center vol- unteers. He wonders whether instruction is necessary or whether it is a change in policy that is needed. Terrence is not quite sure. Determining exactly what is taking place with the volunteers will determine whether instruction or a change in policy is needed. Popular Approaches to Needs Analysis There is a variety of approaches that an instructional designer can utilize for carrying out a needs analysis. This section will discuss several of these approaches, which have been developed by respected instructional design scholars. These approaches are worth exam- ining as you begin to develop your own understanding of, and approach to, the needs analysis process. As you read the different approaches, it is important to note that each approach uses varying terminology to refer to the needs analysis process. Despite the vary- ing terminology used, the outcome of the approaches still remains the same. Robert F. Mager is an author of instructional design texts that have been popular for decades. His approach to needs analysis is a good place to start. Mager (1988) describes a process for determining “the proper course of action in those instances where people aren’t doing what they should be doing” (p. 24). Mager calls this process performance analysis. Performance analysis allows an instructional designer to determine what indi- viduals are now doing and what they should be doing. If a difference exists, then it is the job of the instructional designer to determine why the difference exists. Differences could exist because an individual does not know how to do something; if so, then instruction is necessary. If the individual already knows how to do something and is not doing it, then another remedy other than instruction is needed. 48â … Needs, Task, and Learner Analysis Mager (1988, pp. 25–26) recommends the following steps when conducting a perfor- mance analysis (see Figure 3.1): â ‡ 1 Describe the person or people whose performance is being questioned. â ‡ 2 Describe as specifically as possible what it is they are doing that causes someone to say there is a problem. â ‡ 3 Describe specifically what it is they should be doing. â ‡ 4 Determine the cost of the discrepancy by estimating what it is costing in such things as aggravation, frustration, turnover, scrap, insurance rates, time lost, Describe performance discrepancy No lgnore Important? Yes Yes Skill deficiency? Used No No Performance Yes to do it? punishing? Arrange Remove formal training Yes punishment No Used Yes Nonperformance often? rewarding? Arrange Arrange positive practice consequence Arrange Yes Performance No feedback matters? Arrange consequence Change job Yes Simpler Yes Obstacles? way? Arrange Remove on-job training Select obstacles best solution Transfer or No Has terminate potential? Implement solution(s) Figure 3.1â ‡ Mager’s steps to conducting a performance analysis. Source: Mager, Robert F. Making instruction work.  1989. Adapted. Lake Publishing, Belmont, CA.  Needs Analysisâ … 49 money lost, equipment damage, customers lost or good will damage, accidents, and so on. â ‡ 5 If the estimated cost of the discrepancy is small, stop. In other words, if it is only a prob- lem because you say it is and it is not having any impact on the rest of the world, stop. â ‡ 6 If the cost is great enough to warrant going on, determine whether the target people know how to do what is expected of them. Answer the question, “Could they do it if their very lives depended on it?” â ‡ 7 If they could, then they already know how. Now determine why they are not doing what they already know how to do. This is done by determining the consequences and obstacles of performing: â ‡ a What happens to the performers if they do it right? â ‡ b What happens to them if they do it wrong? â ‡ c What are the obstacles to performing as desired? â ‡ 8 If they could not do it, answer these questions: â ‡ a Can the task be simplified to the point where they could do it? â ‡ b Did they ever know how to do it? (If so, they only need practice.) â ‡ c Is the skill used often? (If they do it often and still do not do it right, they need feedback. If they do not do it often and they used to know how, they need a job aid, such as a checklist or a piece of sheet music (job aids are described in Chapter 9.) â ‡ d Do they have the potential to learn to do it? (If not, they should be transferred or terminated.) â ‡ 9 The answer to these questions leads to the drafting of potential solutions. These solutions must address the problems exposed during the analysis. For example, if it is discovered that people are not performing because they do not have the authority to perform as desired, then one part of the solution must propose a way to remove that obstacle. 10 Once potential remedies are drafted, determine how much it will cost to implement each remedy. 11 Compare the cost of the solutions to the cost of the problem. 12 Select one or more solutions that are (a) less expensive than the problem itself and (b) practical to apply. Mager indicates that a performance analysis should generally only take a few minutes to complete. However, in situations where more time is necessary, it is generally because information needed to answer the questions must be located. Morrison, Ross, and Kemp (2006) approach needs analysis in a more technical manner through the use of method they call a needs assessment. They treat the process almost as if it were a study. According to Morrison etâ ‹al. (2006, p. 32), needs assessment serves four functions: 1 It identifies the needs relevant to a particular job or task—that is, what problems are affecting performance. 2 It identifies critical needs. Critical needs include those that have a significant financial impact, affect safety, or disrupt the work or educational environment. 3 It sets priorities for selecting an intervention. 4 It provides baseline data to assess the effectiveness of the instruction. When conducting a needs assessment, the following four phases are completed (Morrison etâ ‹al., pp. 36–39): 50â … Needs, Task, and Learner Analysis 1 Phase I: Planning. The planning phase begins by defining the audience and what type of data need to be collected about the audience. Once these two elements have been established, a decision needs to be made regarding what segment of the audience data will be collected from. The final step in the planning phase is to establish how data will be collected. Interviews, questionnaires, focus group meetings, and reviews of artifacts (e.g., “paper trails”) are all data collection techniques that can be used. This phase is complete when the data collection instruments (e.g., questionnaires) have been designed. 2 Phase II: Collecting data. Consideration is given to the sample size and how the data collection instruments will be distributed and collected. An appropriate representa- tion of the audience must be selected. The ideal situation would be to include every individual from the target audience. However, it is virtually impossible to collect data from the entire audience because of the logistics and costs involved in doing so. Therefore, a representative sample of the audience is used. (There are statistical prin- ciples and formulas to help determine the optimal sample size; however, these topics are beyond the scope of this book. You will get to enjoy exploring these topics—if you have not done so already—in an advanced statistics course.) 3 Phase III: Analyzing the data. Morrison etâ ‹al. (2006) indicate that the output of the data analysis is an identification of needs (of which there are six different types: normative, comparative, felt, expressed, anticipated, and critical incident) and a pri- oritization of these needs. They state that needs can be prioritized in various ways, such as the relative cost to value for a company, the number of people impacted, a ranking scale, or the frequency that the need is identified. Morrison etâ ‹al. suggest using the Delphi Method to prioritize needs. The Delphi Method is a structured pro- cess for collecting and analyzing knowledge gathered from a group of experts through the use of a series of questionnaires intermixed with controlled opinion feedback. 4 Phase IV: Compiling a final report. Preparing a final report on the findings is the concluding phase. Four sections should be included in a final report: (1) summary of the purpose; (2) summary of the process, including how it was carried out and who was involved; (3) summary of the results in both quantitative (e.g., charts, graphs) and qualitative formats (e.g., a brief narrative) if appropriate; and (4) recommendation(s) based on the data. The recommendation(s) given should be appropriate to the identi- fied problem. As mentioned, the recommendation(s) may or may not be instruction. In addition to the needs assessment method, Morrison etâ ‹al. (2006) describe two other needs analysis methods: goal analysis and performance assessment (which is similar to Mager’s performance analysis). They write: “Goal analysis takes less time than a needs assessment and its focus is typically much narrower. The goal analysis starts with a prob- lem someone has identified, and then it focuses on a solution” (p. 43). This is the type of situation that instructional designers are generally involved in (instructional goals and goal analysis are covered in detail in Chapter 6). A key element to keep in mind with goal analysis is that the instructional designer is not being asked to identify the problem (as is the case with a needs assessment). The job of the instructional designer is to focus primarily on determining an appropriate intervention. Another key element is that instruction may not always be the appropriate interven- tion needed for a problem that exists: “Problems that on the surface seem to require an instructional intervention can often be solved with a change in policy, coaching, or the environment” (Morrison etâ ‹al., 2006, p. 31). Before the instructional goal(s) can be developed, the need or problem that is to be addressed must be identified through the use of needs assessment and analysis processes:  Needs Analysisâ … 51 After the problem is identified, the designer attempts to identify the causes of the problem, and then identifies an array of solutions that could be implemented to solve the problem. Seldom is instruction the single answer to the problem. Usually a combi- nation of changes is required to solve the problem effectively. (Morrison etâ ‹al., 2006, p. 18) Allison Rossett (1995) writes that instructional designers engage in needs analysis when they are responding to a request for assistance. A needs assessment allows an instruc- tional designer to gather information that will allow him or her to make “data-driven and responsive recommendations” (p. 184) about how to solve a problem, which is typically the need to improve some type of performance. She states that the needs assessment drives the entire instructional design process by eventually shaping the decisions made about design, development, implementation, and evaluation. Rossett (1995) believes that when a needs analysis is conducted, it allows an instruc- tional designer to gather information about the following factors: Optimal performance: What does an individual who is performing at an optimal level know or do that allows him or her to perform at this level? Instructional designers consult a variety of sources—such as experts, documentation, standards, practices, texts, and tests—to answer this question. Actual performance: How is an individual currently performing? What is happen- ing to cause a particular event to take place? Why is a change being requested? An instructional designer can use employee performance records, observation, and inter- views to help gather data to provide answers to these questions. Feelings: Instructional designers want to know how individuals feel about the topic, training about the topic, the topic as a priority, and their confidence surrounding the topic. Cause(s): Rossett identifies four kinds of causes for why individuals may not be per- forming as they should: (1) they lack the skill or knowledge; (2) the environment is in the way; (3) there are no, few, or improper incentives; and (4) the employees are unmotivated. Solutions: What solutions are possible? Rossett (1995) outlines a five-step process for conducting a needs analysis: 1 Step One: Determine purposes based on initiators. There are three types of initiating situations that may be taking place: performance problems, “new stuff,” and mandates. The instructional designer must determine what type of situation initiated the problem. The instructional designer must then determine what purpose(s) need to be addressed in order to develop a solution for the existing problem. Figure 3.2 presents the relationship between the three types of initiators and the needs assessment purposes. 2 Step Two: Identify sources. The next step is to identify who has the information that is needed and where it is located. What constraints are there to gaining access to this information? What individuals need to know that you are involved in developing a solution to the existing problem? 3 Step Three: Select tools. Gathering various types of data requires different tools. Careful planning needs to take place in order to select the proper tool that will allow useful data to be effectively gathered. Interviews, observing employee performance, examining records and outcomes, group meetings, and questionnaires are tools that can be used. 52â … Needs, Task, and Learner Analysis INITIATORS PURPOSE Performance Problems Optimals Actuals Causes New Stuff Optimals Feelings Mandates As performance problem or As new stuff Figure 3.2â ‡ The relationship between the three types of initiators and the needs assessment purposes. Source: Rossett, Allison. “Needs assessment.” In G. Angline (Ed.), Instructional technology: Past, present, and future, 2nd edition (pp. 183–196).  1995. Print and electronic permission from Libraries Unlimited, Englewood, CO. 4 Step Four: Conduct the needs assessment in stages. Once you have identified the pur- pose (Step One), established the sources where data will be collected (Step Two), and determined the tools that will be used to collect the data (Step Three), you are ready to conduct the needs assessment. Most needs assessments are done in stages; that is, data are collected and analyzed and then a determination is made as to whether addi- tional information is needed. The need for additional information from the identified sources may be gathered if it is determined that the data collected are not adequate. Inadequate collection of data may be a result of improper sources or data collection tools. If so, an instructional designer may need to revisit Steps Two and Three of this process before conducting another stage of needs assessment. 5 Step Five: Use findings for decision making. The information gathered during the needs assessment is used to develop a solution that is appropriate. Smith and Ragan (2004) believe that instructional designers must learn to be “clever investigators” who are capable of clearly analyzing the learning context. They state that the analysis of the learning context includes two steps: (1) “the substantiation of a need for instruction to help learners reach learning goals” and (2) “a description of the learning environment in which the instruction will be used” (p. 31). They believe that a needs assessment helps determine whether the need exists for new instruction to be developed. Smith and Ragan (2004, pp. 32–35) outline three needs assessment models: the Discrepancy-Based Needs Assessment Model, the Problem-Finding, Problem-Solving Model, and the Innovation Model. Instructional designers use the Discrepancy-Based Needs Assessment Model when learning goals are already identified and instruction is being offered that is related to these goals. Five phases are carried out when using this approach: 1 List the goals of the instructional system. 2 Determine how well the identified goals are already being achieved. 3 Determine the gaps between “what is” and “what should be.” 4 Prioritize gaps according to agreed-upon criteria. 5 Determine which gaps are instructional needs and which are most appropriate for design and development of instruction.  Needs Analysisâ … 53 The Problem-Finding, Problem-Solving Model is used when “someone in management or administration; some member of the constituency, such as parents, clients, or community leaders; or some employees or students have identified that a problem exists in the orga- nization’s achieving its mission” (p. 35). There are four steps to this model: (1) determine whether there really is a problem; (2) determine whether the cause of the problem is related to employees’ performance in training environments or to learners’ achievement in educational environments; (3) determine whether the solution to the achievement/perfor- mance problem is learning; and (4) determine whether instruction for these learning goals is currently offered (pp. 35–36). The Innovation Model is used to examine “changes or innovations in the educational system or organization” to determine if adding new learning goals is necessary to account for the changes or innovations. Four steps make up this model: (1) determine the nature of the innovation or change; (2) determine the learning goals that accompany this innovation; (3) if there is a choice, determine whether these goals are appropriate and high priority in the learning system; and (4) begin learning environment analysis design activities (that is, start the next phase of the instructional design process). With this model, it is extremely impor- tant to include the stakeholders (e.g., teachers/trainers, managers/administrators) because an outcome could be the addition of, or the change in, goals for the organization (p. 36). Needs Analysis Procedure Although the needs analysis approaches described in the previous section employ different tactics, they each share a common outcome: to provide useful data that can be used by an instructional designer to create the best possible solution that helps solve a problem that exists, meets a given need, or brings about a desired change. To gather the appropriate data, a thorough needs analysis must be conducted. A needs analysis is conducted by using various data gathering tools to help answer fundamental questions. Determining the Desired Change The first step in a needs analysis is to determine what change is being requested. As men- tioned early in this chapter, the desired change could be in behavior, skill, or attitude. You will want to find out information that can help you answer the following questions: What problem exists or what change is being requested? Who is being asked to change? What is currently taking place in this environment with this individual or individuals? Typically, the client who hired you will be able to provide you with the necessary infor- mation or access to the information needed to answer these questions. In most cases, your client will specifically tell you what change is desired and the individuals who are being asked to change. This information can be gathered through an interview process. Additionally, through an interview, the client will be able to provide insights into what is currently taking place in the environment where the individual or individuals are being asked to change. However, it is good practice for an instructional designer to observe the environment personally rather than solely relying on the client’s description. Your client will have a biased opinion on what is taking place and therefore may not provide you with a completely accurate picture of what is taking place. It is important to note that not all instructional design projects are this straightforward. On occasion, you may be asked to come in to an organization to observe what is taking 54â … Needs, Task, and Learner Analysis place and determine the type of change that needs to take place. This type of activity is often associated with the field of human performance technology (HPT). According to the International Society for Performance Improvement (ISPI), HPT focuses on analyzing outcomes to identify the causes for why a gap in desired levels of performance exists (ISPI, 2015). Once the causes are identified, an intervention is developed to bridge the perfor- mance gap. The focus of HPT is on human performance—typically related to activities that take place in industry and business settings. The Request for the Desired Change After developing a clear understanding of the existing problem or the change being requested, it is important to understand who is asking for the change. This is an extremely important element to understand because it will help you determine the type of interven- tion that may need to take place, the emotional and political climate of the situation, and the level of support that is present and that will most likely be needed for a change to take place. To come to an understanding of these elements, you will need to answer the follow- ing question: Who identified the problem or is requesting this change? This information is generally easy to obtain. It is often the desire of the client who hired you to have the change occur. It is important to keep in mind that there may be additional stakeholders who might be interested in having the change. However, talking to additional stakeholders to clarify how they feel about the problem or the change being requested may be difficult. Implementation Location of the Desired Change Finding out where the desired change will take place is another important element to con- sider. This will help you to better understand the context of where an intervention will be needed. Where will the solution or change need to take place? Again, the client is the best source of information to answer this question. In most cases, it will be extremely obvious where the change will be needed (e.g., a school, the workplace). It can be very helpful to visit the location where the change is to take place to help you gain a solid understanding of the environment. However, this may not always be possible. If not, it is important to do your research about the environment. The Intervention Once you have the appropriate data that allows you to understand the entire context—the desired change, who is requesting the change, who is being asked to change, and where the change needs to take place—it is time to determine if instruction is the most appropri- ate intervention. You will need to answer the following question: Is instruction the most appropriate means for solving the problem or bringing about the desired change? The client will be relying on your expertise to determine this. There are no steadfast rules on whether instruction is the most appropriate intervention because each instruc- tional design context is different. However, instruction is most appropriate when a change in skill or knowledge is desired. Based on the information you have gathered through your needs analysis, you will need to determine an appropriate intervention. It is important to keep in mind that you may want to offer more than one type of interven- tion to your client. Allow your client to be part of the decision-making process, but, as previously mentioned, know that your client will be relying on your expertise to make the final decision.  Needs Analysisâ … 55 A properly conducted needs analysis contributes significantly to how successful the entire instructional design process will be. A thorough identification of the problem that needs to be addressed will lead to an effective and efficient solution being developed. Evaluating the Success of a Needs Analysis How do you know when you have successfully conducted a needs analysis? How do you know that the data gathered accurately describe the problem or the change that needs to take place (thus helping you to develop an appropriate solution)? One method used to evaluate the success of a needs analysis is to determine if the solution developed and imple- mented helped bring about the desired change. In other words, did performance improve? Although extremely important, this summative evaluation activity poses serious problems if it is the only method used to evaluate the success of a needs analysis. The most serious problem is that it is conducted well after the needs analysis has been carried out and con- sequently does not provide you with corrective feedback. It is an “all or nothing” method. It helps to determine whether you have succeeded or you have failed. Therefore, it is good practice to use formative evaluation activities throughout the needs analysis process in addition to this summative activity. An important formative evaluation activity to use is sustained communication between you and the client during the entire needs analysis process. Data gathered should be peri- odically shared with the client during this process. This formative evaluation activity helps ensure that you are gathering accurate data by presenting the client with opportunities to provide feedback. How often the communication should take place is based on the nature of the project and the availability of the client. There is no typical answer; however, it is good practice to communicate at least once a week with your client. It is important to real- ize that it can be difficult to communicate with some clients on a consistent basis. Another formative evaluation activity that can be conducted is to share data and inter- pretations of the data with a member of the target audience the change is designed for (or with someone who has had a similar experience, although this situation is not as ideal). This can help determine if what you have found matches with what the individual per- ceives is taking place. If the data and interpretations seem familiar and appropriate to this individual, it suggests that the needs analysis was successful. This process is referred to as a member check. A member check is a comparison method of evaluation that comes from a qualitative research paradigm. Hannah has decided to gather information about the problem at a faculty meeting. She realizes that there are multiple issues that might be going on that could be con- tributing to the low pass rate. Hannah uses an approach that is similar to Rossett’s approach in which information is gathered on various levels about the problem. With this approach, optimal performance, actual performance, feelings, and causes are explored. Hannah will investigate these areas with the faculty in her department in hopes of clearly identifying the need that must be met in order to increase the pass rate of the teacher candidates in her department. From this exploration, the department can identify a solution that Hannah can help the faculty carry out. Terrence has decided to use Mager’s performance analysis process. This will allow Terrence to determine if a difference exists between what the volunteers should be doing and what they are doing when answering the phones and talking to clients. If Terrence determines there is a difference, then he will be able to identify what needs to be done to fix this problem. It might be that the volunteers are not familiar with what is expected of 56â … Needs, Task, and Learner Analysis them; thus, training may be needed. The problem could also be that the volunteers know how to do what they are supposed to be doing but are just not doing it; if this is the case, then another solution other than instruction will be needed. As Terrence conducts the performance analysis, he finds out that many of the volunteers have not been through any training on how to handle certain problems they may encounter while talking on the phone to a particular segment of clients the nonprofit serves. Thus, Terrence suggests to his supervisor that training should be developed and provided to the call center volunteers. Needs Analysis and the Instructional Design Process A needs analysis is critical in helping the instructional designer determine what instruc- tion needs to be developed or if instruction is even necessary to help bring about a desired change. No matter what approach you take, completing a needs analysis should help you answer the following questions: What problem exists or what change is being requested? Who is being asked to change? What is currently taking place with the individual or individuals being asked to change? Who identified the problem or is requesting this change? Where will the solution or change need to take place? Is instruction the most appropriate means for solving the problem or bringing about the desired change? What is the solution to be developed and implemented? Summary Numerous needs analysis methods exist that can be used by instructional designers. Popular approaches to needs analysis include those outlined by Dick, Carey, & Carey (2009), Mager (1988), Morrison etâ ‹al. (2006), Rossett (1995), and Smith and Ragan (2004). Although these methods vary in how they are carried out, each shares the common goal of providing an instructional designer with the appropriate data that help inform and influence the design and development of an effective and efficient solution. This solution is one that helps solve a problem or bring about some type of change—typically, an improve- ment in performance. This improvement can be to knowledge, skills, and/or attitudes. A needs analysis is conducted using various data gathering tools to help answer fundamental questions. Evaluating the success of a needs analysis is accomplished by using a combination of formative and summative evaluation techniques to determine if an instructional designer created the best possible solution, which helped to solve a problem or meet a given need, or brought about a desired change. A properly conducted needs analysis contributes significantly to how successfully the entire instructional design process will be carried out. Connecting Process to Practice Activities â ‡ 1 You are the lead instructional designer recently hired for a large-scale project. Your client has asked you to describe why a needs analysis is important to the success of the project. What do you tell your client? Do not assume your client even knows what a needs analysis is. â ‡ 2 Several perspectives on needs analysis were discussed in the chapter. What key elements for conducting a needs analysis do these perspectives have in common? How do these perspectives differ?  Needs Analysisâ … 57 â ‡ 3 When examining the approaches taken by Hannah and Terrence, do you believe each took the appropriate needs analysis approach? Explain why you believe the approach each took is appropriate or what you might do differently if you were in their positions. â ‡ 4 What do you believe are the most important data that Hannah must gather in order to complete a successful needs analysis? Do you foresee any potential issues with Hannah being able to gather the data she needs? Answer the same questions from Terrence’s perspective. â ‡ 5 Describe an instructional design scenario where you believe a formal needs analysis would not need to be conducted. â ‡ 6 Is it appropriate to conduct a needs analysis when preparing instruction in a K-12 setting? How might one go about conducting a needs analysis for instruction to be delivered in a third-grade classroom? â ‡ 7 Describe how the field of human performance technology approaches needs analyses. â ‡ 8 You have been hired by a client to work on an instructional design project. The cli- ent is a company that owns several nursing home facilities located throughout Texas. Your client has indicated to you that incidents of complaints from those living at the company’s nursing homes have steadily risen during the past six months. The client wants the residents of their nursing homes to have comfortable living experi- ences. Therefore, a solution that will help reduce the number of complaints is needed. However, your client is not sure what needs to be done. It could be a variety of issues that could be contributing to why the complaints have increased. Your task is to con- duct a needs analysis to determine what type of solution(s) may be necessary. Describe how you would conduct a needs analysis in this situation. Include the steps you would take, the data you would gather, how you would analyze the information, and how you would report the findings back to your client, which would include what you feel needs to be done. â ‡9 You and your grade-level team are planning for the upcoming school year. Your administrator has told your team that she needs to see a yearlong outline of what will be taught that includes how the Common Core State Standards in English Language Arts for your grade level will be addressed. You and your team will use the outline as a guide to create instruction. Describe how a needs analysis would help you and your team develop the yearlong outline. 10 Consider a course you are currently taking or have recently completed. How would you go about conducting a needs analysis for this course? What types of information would you gather? Recommended Reading Dick, W., Carey, L., & Carey, J. O. (2009). The systematic design of instruction (7th ed.). Columbus, OH: Allyn & Bacon. Gagne, R. M., Wager, W. W., Golas, K. C., & Keller, J. M. (2004). Principles of instructional design (5th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning. Kaufman, R., Rojas, A. M., & Mayer, H. (1993). Needs assessment: A user’s guide. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications. Mager, R. F. (1988). Making instruction work. Belmont, CA: Lake Publishing Company. Mager, R. F., & Pipe, P. (1996). Analyzing performance problems. Belmont, CA: Pitman. Rossett, A. (1995). Needs assessment. In G. Anglin (Ed.), Instructional technology: Past, present, and future (2nd ed.) (pp. 183–196). Englewood, CO: Libraries Unlimited. Rossett, A. (2009). First things fast: A handbook for performance analysis (2nd ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons. 58â … Needs, Task, and Learner Analysis Seels, B., & Glasgow, Z. (1998). Making instructional design decisions (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Smith, P. L., & Ragan, T. J. (2004). Instructional design (3rd ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons. References Dick, W., Carey, L., & Carey, J. O. (2009). The systematic design of instruction (7th ed.). Columbus, OH: Allyn & Bacon. International Society for Performance Improvement (ISPI). (2015). What is HPT? Retrieved from www.ispi.org/content.aspx?id=54&terms=What+is+human+performance+technology. Mager, R. F. (1989). Making instruction work. Belmont, CA: Lake Publishing Company. Merrill, M. D. (2013). First principles of instruction: Identifying and designing effective, efficient, and engaging instruction. San Francisco: Pfeiffer. Morrison, G. R., Ross, S. M., & Kemp, J. E. (2006). Designing effective instruction (5th ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons. Rossett, A. (1995). Needs assessment. In G. Anglin (Ed.), Instructional technology: Past, present, and future (2nd ed.) (pp. 183–196). Englewood, CO: Libraries Unlimited. Smith, P. L., & Ragan, T. J. (2004). Instructional design (3rd ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons.