Construction Drawings and Details for Interiors: Basic Skills PDF

00.kilmer.fm 1/14/03 5:22 PM Page iii CONSTRUCTION DRAWINGS AND DETAILS FOR INTERIORS: BASIC SKILLS W. OTIE KILMER ROSEMARY KILME...

00.kilmer.fm 1/14/03 5:22 PM Page iii CONSTRUCTION DRAWINGS AND DETAILS FOR INTERIORS: BASIC SKILLS W. OTIE KILMER ROSEMARY KILMER John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 00.kilmer.fm 1/14/03 5:22 PM Page ii 00.kilmer.fm 1/14/03 5:22 PM Page i Construction Drawings and Details for Interiors 00.kilmer.fm 1/14/03 5:22 PM Page ii 00.kilmer.fm 1/14/03 5:22 PM Page iii CONSTRUCTION DRAWINGS AND DETAILS FOR INTERIORS: BASIC SKILLS W. OTIE KILMER ROSEMARY KILMER John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 00.kilmer.fm 1/14/03 5:22 PM Page iv Dedicated to Courtney and Jeff Johnston, for their help and encouragement in writing this book. This book is printed on acid-free paper. ∞ Copyright © 2003 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 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ISBN 0-471-10953-3 Printed in the United States of America. 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 00.kilmer.fm 1/14/03 5:22 PM Page v Contents Preface vii Part II — Contract Documents 47 Acknowledgments ix CHAPTER 5 CONSTRUCTION DRAWINGS, SPECIFICATIONS, AND CONTRACTS 49 Part I — Drawing, Equipment, and Fundamentals 1 Specifications 49 CHAPTER 1 DRAWING AS COMMUNICATION 3 Contracts 51 Construction Drawings 52 Drawing for Idea Generation 3 Drawing as a Design and Presentation Media 6 Guidelines for Preparing Construction Drawings 59 Drawing as Guide for Construction 6 Drawing Conventions and Representations 64 CHAPTER 2 DRAFTING EQUIPMENT AND ITS CARE 9 CHAPTER 6 FLOOR PLANS 77 Drawing Tables and Surfaces 9 Scale of Floor Plans 81 Drawing Papers and Plastic Films 10 Drafting Standards 81 Pencils, Leads, and Pens 11 Dimensioning Floor Plans 93 Parallel Bar, T-Square, and Drafting Machines 14 Designation of Materials 96 Triangles, Templates, and Compasses 15 Checklist for Floor Plans 97 Scales 17 CHAPTER 7 ELEVATIONS 99 Erasers, Erasing Shields, and Brushes 18 Exterior Elevations 101 Additional Equipment 20 Interior Elevations 102 CHAPTER 3 DRAWING AND DRAFTING FUNDAMENTALS 21 Scale of Interior Elevations 102 Starting the Drawing 22 Drafting Standards for Interior Elevations 104 Line Types 24 Designation of Materials 108 Drafting Standards, Abbreviations, and Symbols 26 Dimensioning Elevations 110 Lettering 27 Checklist for Interior Elevations 112 CHAPTER 4 DRAWING CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS 31 CHAPTER 8 SECTIONS 113 Multiview Drawings 31 Types of Section Drawings 115 Single-view Drawings 32 Drafting Standards 117 Perspective Drawings 37 Building Sections 117 v 00.kilmer.fm 1/14/03 5:22 PM Page vi Sections of Interior Spaces 118 CHAPTER 13 FURNISHINGS AND EQUIPMENT PLANS 171 Wall Sections 119 Scale of Drawings 175 Detail and Object Sections 121 Drafting Standards 175 Checklist for Section Drawings 122 Designation of Materials 177 CHAPTER 9 SPECIALTY DRAWINGS AND DETAILS 123 Dimensioning of Furnishings and Equipment Plans 178 Checklist for Furnishings and Equipment Plans 178 Purpose of Specialty Drawings 123 Stairs and Ramps 123 CHAPTER 14 REFLECTED CEILING AND ELECTRICAL PLANS 181 Millwork 129 Reflected Ceiling Plans 182 Cabinetry 132 Electrical Plans 195 Fireplaces 136 CHAPTER 15 MECHANICAL AND PLUMBING PLANS 201 CHAPTER 10 SCHEDULES 141 Mechanical (HVAC) Plans 202 Door Schedules 144 Plumbing Plans 207 Checklist for Door Schedules 148 Drafting Standards for Plumbing Drawings 210 Window Schedules 149 CHAPTER 16 REPRODUCTION METHODS AND COMPUTERS 213 Checklist for Window Schedules 150 Finish Schedules 151 Reproductions of Drawings 214 Checklist for Finish Schedules 152 Using Computers for Design, Communication, and Drafting 216 Other Schedules 152 Appendix A MasterFormat™ Level Two Numbers and Titles 219 CHAPTER 11 FINISH PLANS 153 Appendix B Section Format Outline 225 Scale of Finish Plans 156 Drafting Standards for Finish Plans 156 Appendix C Sample ADA Guidelines 227 Designation of Materials in Finish Plans 157 Appendix D Abbreviations for Construction Drawings 231 Dimensioning Finish Plans 159 Checklist for Finish Plans 159 Glossary 233 CHAPTER 12 FURNITURE INSTALLATION PLANS 161 Index 239 Scale of Furniture Installation Plans 165 Drafting Standards for Furniture Installation Plans 165 Dimensioning Furniture Installation Plans 168 Designation of Materials 168 Checklist for Furniture Installation Plans 170 vi CONTENTS 00.kilmer.fm 1/14/03 5:22 PM Page vii Preface The design process for architectural interiors involves a series of a basic, yet comprehensive set of standards and techniques. For phases, each of which may call for drawings. At the outset, these students or interns, these pages are best used with an instructor or may include programming, schematic, preliminary, and design mentor who can present the published materials, but augment development drawings. Such presentation drawings are created to them with supplemental information and other exercises. convey program elements, spatial relationships, materials, color Computer-aided drawing (CAD) and computer-aided drawing schemes, furnishings, and equipment, as necessary to set the design and drafting (CADD) are tools that have become integral to interi- concept for an interior. Construction drawings are then produced or design. This book thus provides a general introduction to using that follow the design intent developed through these earlier draw- the computer. It briefly discusses electronically storing and retriev- ings. Construction drawings, also known as working drawings, are ing documents for current and future projects. Many elements of a graphic representations that communicate how to construct, current project can be copied and easily modified for future appli- remodel, or install a project. These drawings also include related cation in other projects. In this manner, designers can build a information, such as room designations, door, window, and fixture design database. Today, images, drawings and other information locations; dimensions; materials; and other details. are sent electronically to clients, consultants, suppliers, builders, Construction drawings involve considerable time and attention and other professionals. This is a far leap ahead of such past meth- to detail. In many professional design firms, over 50 percent of a ods as copying and mailing or sending telephonic facsimile. project fee (payment from the client to the designer) might be allo- Working electronically has changed many of the ways designers cated to preparing construction drawings and the related specifica- communicate their work, and is continually evolving. tions. This attests to the importance of construction drawings in the However, this is not a textbook on how to draft with the com- overall process of designing and constructing environments. puter, or on the use of specific drafting software. Computer hard- Interior designers are taking an increasing role in coordinating ware and software are constantly being upgraded and improved. interior projects and for producing construction drawings. Interior For this reason, this book focuses on how to incorporate a generic design and construction requires some unique types of drawing not CAD approach into the construction drawing process. Examples commonly addressed in textbooks or curricula. It is to speak to this are presented throughout the book of both electronic and hand- need that this book was created — as a handbook on preparing con- drawn creations. Although many designers use CAD heavily in struction drawings solely for the field of interior design. their work, a significant number do not fully use it for all aspects The book has been designed for two groups of users: students in of the drawing process, or at all. Well-executed hand drawings can interior design schools and interns in the offices that design interi- still be effective design exploration and communication tools, and ors; and professional interior designers and architecturs who need sometimes they are even works of art. vii 00.kilmer.fm 1/14/03 5:22 PM Page viii This book is organized in two parts. Part 1 (Chapters 1 through the larger spaces and number of building trades required. The illus- 4) first discusses graphic language as a communication tool in trations represent high standards and can serve as guides for design and architecture. Chapters 2 and 3 present equipment design: linework, lettering, notation, and dimensioning that stu- needs and basic drafting principles for the beginning student. dents can aspire to in their own work. In addition to the authors’ Chapter 4 presents the drawing classification systems and how drawings, examples are included from practicing professionals. they are used for idea generation and communication. Drawings and details of interiors are included from a variety of Part 2 (Chapters 5 throuth 16) detail the construction docu- geographical areas — as design ideas, material, environmental fac- ment process. Overall concepts and organization are discussed, tors, and accepted standards vary throughout the world. Projects as are specific examples. Chapter 16 discusses the use of com- are also shown in relation to their compliance with the American puters and the various systems for reproducing construction Disabilities Act and other code requirements. Dimensions are often drawings. indicated in feet and inches, with metric equivalents for Canadian Examples used in the book include both residential and com- and international applications. mercial interiors. However, more emphasis is placed on commer- A glossary and appendices are included listing commonly used cial projects, as these installations usually require more in-depth terms, graphic standards, and other information related to the detailing, coordination, and often multiple drawings/sheets due to preparation of construction drawings for interiors. viii PREFACE 00.kilmer.fm 1/14/03 5:22 PM Page ix Acknowledgments The authors wish to express their sincere thanks to the following peo- especially thankful to The Construction Specifications Institute, ple, who helped in the development and preparation of this book. American Society of Interior Designers, Hillenbrand Mitsch Design, We are deeply grateful to the dedicated staff at John Wiley & Sons. KJG Architecture, Inc., KraftMaid Cabinetry, Océ-USA, Inc., and Without their guidance, assistance, and dedicated work, this project Hewlett-Packard Company. Every effort has been made to correctly would have never become a reality. Among these individuals the supply the proper credit information. authors are particularly indebted to Amanda Miller, Associate We are grateful to a number of interior design educators Publisher. Her support, understanding, and perseverance to com- throughout the country for their in-depth reviews, criticism, and plete this project are very much appreciated. Also, we wish to thank helpful suggestions as to the needs of students and instructors in Paul Drougas, Acquisitions Editor, for his help in the development interior design. and final preparation of this project. To David Sassian, Associate Finally, we would like to express our deep appreciation to Managing Editor, for his diligence in editing and attending to the Courtney and Jeff Johnston for their tireless help with the illustra- many details that turned the manuscript into a finished book. tions and for their suggestions, based on their professional experi- Special appreciation is expressed to the professionals and organ- ence, as to contemporary standards and practices. Special thanks izations that provided us with illustrations and permissions to use also to Lisa Kilmer, for assistance and encouragement in the early their materials to make this book a truly visual experience. We are stages of this project. ix 00.kilmer.fm 1/14/03 5:22 PM Page x 01.kilmer 1/14/03 5:28 PM Page 1 Part I Drawings, Equipment, and Fundamentals 1 01.kilmer 1/14/03 5:28 PM Page 2 01.kilmer 1/14/03 5:28 PM Page 3 Ideas and plans are formed in the interior designer’s mind, but to be transformed into reality, they have to be communicated to others. DRAWING AS COMMUNICATION 1 Although a designer may have a great idea, it must be effectively communicated or it will remain just an idea and never move beyond conception. Interior designers and other professionals in the building industry use drawings as the primary means of developing Figure 1-1 Sketching existing and sharing their ideas. Interior designers and architects do a lot of objects and spaces helps sketching and drawing. They develop their skills in freehand draw- designers develop their ing by sketching existing objects and spaces in the environment freehand drawing skills. (Figure 1-1). These same skills of observation and sketching are then used in visualizing designs for new spaces and objects (Figure 1-2). This process of brain, eye, and hand coordination is an intrinsic part of design. Architectural drawings can be grouped into three basic types: drawing as idea generation, drawing as a design and presentation medium, and drawing as a guide for the construction process. There are distinct differences between each of these types, yet they all contain some common drawing tools, techniques, stan- dards, and graphic language. Drawing for Idea Generation Idea generation assists the designer in working through and visu- alizing the solution to a problem. Designers use many different types of drawings to generate and bring to reality their creative ideas. These drawings can be in the form of quick freehand sketches illustrating different kinds of views (Figure 1-3). Many times these types of drawings are not shown to clients but are used solely to help designers shape their ideas. The drawings are not 3 01.kilmer 1/14/03 5:29 PM Page 4 intended to be the final solution to a problem but rather to allow the designer to explore alternatives or refine an idea. They also help to record a designer’s two- and three-dimensional thinking. These concept sketches and drawings are part of a sequence of design steps referred to as the design process (Figure 1-4). Figure 1-2 Designers can use their freehand drawing skills to visualize and sketch new spaces and objects. 4 PART I: DRAWINGS, EQUIPMENT, AND FUNDAMENTALS 01.kilmer 1/14/03 5:29 PM Page 5 Figure 1-3 Quick freehand sketches such as this floor plan can be used as a first step in turning designers’ creative ideas into reality. Figure 1-4 Concept sketches and drawings are part of a sequence of design steps known as the design process. CHAPTER 1: DRAWING AS COMMUNICATION 5 01.kilmer 1/14/03 5:29 PM Page 6 Drawing as Design and Presentation Media Once a designer has developed an idea to a point that visual com- munication is needed to show it to the client or others, new draw- ings must be created for use as presentation media. These drawings depict the parameters of an idea in more detail, yet are not totally worked out to a point that they serve as an accurate construction guide. Design drawings can range from pictorial renderings of an Figure 1-5 Design drawings idea (Figure 1-5) to rendered plan views of a building’s interiors such as this pictorial rendering (Figure 1-6). In the first example, a rendering is often done as a per- show ideas in more detail. spective view (Chapter 4), which resembles a photograph. The receding lines of an object are purposely drawn to a distant van- ishing point — similar to the effect of railroad tracks that appear to touch at the horizon. Design drawings are also done using tech- niques other than perspectives, such as in the isometric shown in Figure 1-7. Different types of drawings are discussed further in Chapter 4. Drawing as a Guide for Construction Drawings serve as the prime means of communication for con- structing buildings, interior spaces, cabinets, furniture, and other objects. Construction drawings are scaled, detailed, and accurate representations of how an object looks and how it is constructed, as well as the materials used (Figure 1-8). The drawings follow estab- lished architectural graphic conventions to indicate sizes, material, and related information that is needed to bring the objects or spaces into reality (Figure 1-9). The builder needs clear, concise drawings that are directly related to the different views of an object, such as plans, elevations, sections (Figure 1-10), and other drawing types that are discussed in later chapters. 6 PART I: DRAWINGS, EQUIPMENT, AND FUNDAMENTALS 01.kilmer 1/14/03 5:29 PM Page 7 Figure 1-6 Design drawings can also take the form of plan views. Figure 1-7 Design drawings can rely on a variety of techniques. Pictured here is an isometric drawing. CHAPTER 1: DRAWING AS COMMUNICATION 7 01.kilmer 1/14/03 5:29 PM Page 8 Figure 1-9 Designers use graphic conventions to indicate sizes, material, and related information Figure 1-8 Drawings used to needed to turn ideas for objects communicate how something or spaces into reality. should be constructed are scaled, detailed, and accurate; they also show materials to be used. Figure 1-10 Clear, concise drawings of an object, such as this section, help a builder to construct the object the designer envisioned. 8 PART I: DRAWINGS, EQUIPMENT, AND FUNDAMENTALS 02.kilmer 2/2/03 12:26 PM Page 9 To do any job accurately and expediently, a designer must have DRAFTING EQUIPMENT AND ITS CARE manually on a drawing board set on a tabletop surface, on a 2 the proper tools. Tools are important in all work — whether it be handmade drafting table, or on a ready-made drafting table. Or surgery or carpentry, designing or drafting. Quality tools and they can be drawn using computer drafting hardware and software equipment will also make drawing and drafting more enjoyable. that augments a drawing board or replaces it totally. In this chap- Investing in good equipment for designing and drafting can bene- ter, commonly used manual drafting tables, equipment and tools fit both students and professionals. are discussed. Computer drawing and drafting are discussed in The advent of computer-aided design and drafting, commonly more detail in Chapter 16. referred to as CAD, has reduced the need for much of the basic For interior designers, a fairly large layout and drawing surface equipment described in the following pages. However, many stu- is needed most of the time. It is vital to have a drawing surface that dents and professionals still prefer to draw manually in some situ- will hold large presentation boards and standard sheets up to 24 x ations, such as sketching initial design concepts or construction 36 inches (731 x 914 mm). Even larger sheets may be necessary for details. To this end, basic manual equipment and techniques are perspective drawings and full-size furniture drawings. A drawing described in the next few chapters. board or table approximately 30 x 50 inches (.762 x 1.27 m) should A designer or draftsperson need not buy every piece of new be obtained if possible. This will allow adequate space around the equipment or software available. However, one should buy a new actual drawing sheet to place and maneuver the drawing tools and product if it will improve one’s work, both in quality and efficien- materials. cy. Manufacturers often produce a range of models of varying Ready-made drafting tables are manufactured in a wide variety quality. One can decide which model will produce the best effects of shapes, sizes, materials, and prices (Figure 2-1). Some styles have in relation to the purchase price — sometimes not the top-of-the- an adjustable top and rest on four legs. Other models have a sin- line model. One should purchase tools and equipment of good gle or double pedestal base with a top that can be raised or lowered quality, as they are an investment that will pay off throughout according to the chair or stool height. This enables drafters to sit in one’s career. a chair with a comfortable back and thus to work with less fatigue. The newer models also allow the top to tilt at various angles for Drawing Tables and Surfaces comfort. This allows the drafter to work whether sitting or stand- To produce quality drawings for interior design projects, it is neces- ing. Space-saving folding tables are also produced, although they sary to establish a dedicated workplace. Designs can be drawn are not generally as sturdy as the fixed models. 9 02.kilmer 2/2/03 12:26 PM Page 10 Figure 2-1 A variety of pre- manufactured drafting tables are available to designers. They range from very basic, with few options for adjust- ment, to quite sophisticated, with electronic controls. Manufactured tables have drawing surfaces that range in size habits must first be determined, as this type of drawing area will be from 30 x 48 inches (762 x 1.21 mm) to 30 x 60 inches (.762 x 1.52 fixed and not adjustable. m) and are usually made of wood or hardboard over a cellular core. However, a wood drawing surface can become scored and Drawing Papers and Plastic Film grooved over time, which affects the drawing quality of the surface. Interior design drawings can be produced on paper or plastic film. It is best to cover the bare wood top with a protective finish such as The quality of paper or film will help determine the quality of plastic melamine or a vinyl drawing-board cover that gives a bit of linework. A variety of papers and plastic films are manufactured resiliency and is easy to keep clean. The latter covering is often pro- today in many standard sheet sizes and rolls. The choice of which duced with an off-white and a colored side. Which side to leave to use is dependent upon the designer’s overall intent, office stan- faceup is left to the individual. dards, and the intended method selected for making a copy from the original. Drawing-board and table surfaces do not have to be manufac- tured, as a self-made surface can also be satisfactory and less Papers expensive. For example, a hollow-core, flush door can be support- Drafting papers are made in a large variety of types, based on sta- ed on blocks or handmade legs made of 2x4 lumber with metal bility, translucency, permanence, strength, and cost. There are two brackets. However, the height and angle that suits individual work basic categories: opaque and translucent. Opaque papers are 10 PART I: DRAWINGS, EQUIPMENT, AND FUNDAMENTALS 02.kilmer 2/2/03 12:26 PM Page 11 thicker than translucent ones and cannot be reproduced through Table 2-1 Standard Paper Sizes methods such as the diazo printing process (see Chapter 16 for Architectural Drawing Metric reproduction methods). Therefore, they are not suitable for con- Type Size (in.) Type Size (mm) A 8 1/2 x 11 A4 210 x 297 struction drawings that are to be copied in this manner. They are B 11 x 17 A3 297 x 420 more suitable for plotting directly from a computer (in single sheets C 17 x 22 A2 420 x 594 D 24 x 36 A1 594 x 841 or rolls) and for concept and presentation drawings, as they are E 36 x 48 A0 841 x 1189 available in a variety of colors ranging from white to gray, cream, green, and blue. Some opaque papers are made smooth on one 0.0075 inch to 0.05, 0.08, 0.10, 0.14, and 0.19 mm. The sheets may side and rough on the other. The smooth side is more appropriate be frosted on one side and smooth on the other or frosted on both for inking and the rough side for pencil drawings. Most papers will sides. Drawing is done on the frosted side, which accepts pencil or accept ink or pencil. However, the quality of their application and pen more readily than the smooth side. possible bleed-through varies according to the composition of the Special plasticized lead pencils were at one time commonly used paper and its thickness. with plastic films, but they are not as prevalent as they once were. Translucent papers, such as tracing paper and vellum, are used These are discussed in the paragraph under leads in the next sec- for drawings that are to be reproduced through the diazo process. tion. Special ink is also available for drawing on plastic film. Both However, they can also be reproduced photostatically. Tracing pencil and ink lines are very clear and crisp on plastic films and paper is generally a natural, untreated translucent paper. It is used produce very clear, clean prints. Plastic films are sold in rolls and primarily for exploratory ideas and sketches. It is commonly sold standard sheet sizes. The films are generally more expensive than in inexpensive rolls (in white or yellow shades) and called “trac- tracing paper or vellum and used primarily for permanent records ing,” “trash,” “flimsy,” or “bum wad.” It is fairly strong and or tough originals for multiple reproductions. durable, but not as transparent as vellums, and will not produce line work as crisp and clear as vellums. Pencils, Leads, and Pens Vellum is a translucent tracing paper that is treated to improve Pencils are one of the most basic and primary drawing tools of the strength, surface texture, and transparency. Vellums also have a professional designer. There are three basic types of pencils avail- high rag content that gives them strength so they can withstand able to a designer for producing quality drawings (Figure 2-2). The erasing. Vellum is sold in rolls or standard sheet sizes and can be selection is a matter of preference and the particular level of per- used for hand or computer drafting. Standard sheet sizes for archi- formance needed by the user. tectural drawings are shown in Table 2-1. Wood-Cased Pencil Plastic Films The oldest manufactured pencil is of wood with a lead encased Plastic drafting films are tough, translucent, polyester sheets. Their inside. It is seldom used for repetitive work in today’s office, yet is common thickness ranges from 0.002, 0.003, 0.004, 0.005, and still a reliable tool for occasional use for convenience and when CHAPTER 2: DRAFTING EQUIPMENT AND ITS CARE 11 02.kilmer 2/2/03 12:26 PM Page 12 Figure 2-2 The three types of pencil line control is needed. To expose the lead, the wood shell is pencils available for designers cut away by a draftsman’s pencil sharpener. However, the sharpen- are the wood-cased pencil, the er only cuts the wood and does not touch the lead. To “point” the traditional leadholder, and the lead, the designer can use a lead pointer, which forms the lead into fine-line mechanical pencil. a conical point. If a wedge point is desired, rubbing the lead on sandpaper can form it. Wood-cased pencils come in a variety of dif- ferent lead weights, ranging from 9H (extremely hard) to 6B (extremely soft). These leads are explained later in this chapter. Traditional Leadholder This type of mechanical pencil is made of metal or plastic, with special individual leads inserted in a permanent holder. Different lead weights may be inserted to produce a variety of sharp line weights. Pencil leads are graded from 9H (hard) to F (firm) to 6B (black). Beginners should sharpen the point frequently for a clear, Table 2-2 Pencil-lead Weights* sharp line until they develop the ability to rotate the pencil while drawing to wear the point more evenly. The lead is sharpened by 9H rubbing and rotating on sandpaper, on regular paper, or in a spe- 8H 7H Hard pencil leads are used for drawings, light layouts, cial mechanical lead pointer. When using sandpaper to sharpen 6H and drawings requiring a high degree of accuracy. the lead, it should be slanted at a low angle to achieve a good taper 5H 4H and point. 3H Fine-Line Mechanical Pencil 2H H These leads are used for sketching, architectural This type of mechanical pencil does not require sharpening and is F line work, lettering and general purposes. loaded with multiple leads of the same diameter and hardness. The HB pencil generally is made to hold 0.3, 0.5, 0.7, or 0.9 mm diameter B lead. The size of the lead determines the line width. This type of 2B 3B pencil is also generally rotated while drawing, and capable of pro- Soft leads are used for sketching, 4B ducing consistently sharp, clean lines. Like the traditional lead- rendering, and graphical accents. 5B 6B holder, the mechanical pencil offers the convenience of a steady supply of lead, as the leads are inserted in the bottom of the hold- *The gradations can vary with different brands and types of drawing media. When in doubt, try a sample or test first. er and pushed out the tip by pressing a button on the end of the 12 PART I: DRAWINGS, EQUIPMENT, AND FUNDAMENTALS 02.kilmer 2/2/03 12:26 PM Page 13 pencil. It is the most widely used pencil in today’s schools and means the line width is.30 mm or the American standard size of offices for sketching, note-taking, and even drafting. 00. Metric widths range from.13 to 2.0 mm, while the American standard widths range from 000000 to 6. These sizes correspond to Leads line-width designations developed by the American National A variety of leads are available for both wood and mechanical Standards Institute (ANSI) and are coordinated with metric sizes. pencils. Leads used on tracing paper and drafting paper are com- For a starter pen set, a good range of point sizes would be 3x0 (.25 posed of graphite. Leads range in grades from 9H (extremely hard) mm), 2x0 (.3 mm), 1 (.45 mm), and 3 (.80 mm). Technical pens to 6B (extremely soft). (See Table 2-2.) The softer the lead, the dark- that produce the same line widths are also available with felt tips. er the image or line it will produce. For most drafting work, where These are less costly, however their felt tips tend to wear out faster clean, crisp lines are necessary, H and 2H leads are used. For than the metal tips. sketching, softer leads are better, such as F and HB. Very soft leads, such as the B grades, are best for pencil renderings and shadowing An advantage to using ink, especially on plastic drafting film, is work. For light, preliminary layout work, 3H and 4H leads are best. that it will last several years longer than pencil, will not smudge, and will produce excellent reproductions. When using technical Generally, the more “tooth” or roughness a paper has, the hard- pens, remember to keep points screwed in securely to prevent the er the lead should be. Also, the harder the drawing surface, the ink from clogging. Always replace the cap firmly after each use to softer the lead will feel. If you are in high humidity conditions, the apparent hardness of the lead tends to increase. As noted before, there are also special plastic-leaded pencils Figure 2-3 Technical fountain available for drawing on plastic drafting film. These plastic leads pens and ink refill. are available in five grades of hardness, ranging from E1 (soft) to E5 (super hard). They are water-resistant and bond well to the plastic film. A vinyl eraser is also available for use with these special leads. Pens Some designers prefer ink and use a technical fountain pen (Figure 2-3), as it is capable of precise line width. It can be used for both freehand and drafted ink drawings. As with drafting pencils, pens are available in a variety of forms and price ranges. However, most technical drawing pens consist of a tubular point, which has an ink-flow-regulating wire inside it. The size of the tubular point is what determines the finished width. Standard widths of ink lines are measured according to a line-width code, such as.30/00, which CHAPTER 2: DRAFTING EQUIPMENT AND ITS CARE 13 02.kilmer 2/2/03 12:26 PM Page 14 Figure 2-4 The T-square and keep the ink from drying, and store the pens with their points up the parallel bar are used to when not in use. create straight lines, whether Use a good waterproof black drawing ink. Good nonclogging they are horizontal or vertical. ink that is specially made for use in fountain and technical pens is the best choice. Parallel Bar, T-Square, and Drafting Machines It is extremely important to make sure lines on design drawings and construction drawings are exactly straight and, when required, parallel. To make sure lines are straight in a horizontal, vertical, and angular direction, there are several tools available. The most common of these instruments are the T-square and par- allel bar (Figure 2-4). A device called a drafting machine (Figure 2-5) is also sometimes used. T-Square A T-square consists of a straightedge with a head set at right angles that can be set flush against the edge of a drawing board or table. The head is generally very sturdy and immovable. T-squares come in different lengths to coordinate with various drawing board sizes. The most common lengths are 36 and 42 inches (.91 and 1.06 m). They are available with opaque or transparent edges, the latter making it easier to see through to existing lines when spacing by eye. To use a T-square, one holds it with one hand (usually the left) at the head so it can be moved into position and held in place Figure 2-5 An arm-track drafting while a line is drawn along the straightedge with the other hand. machine can produce horizontal, The T-square is inexpensive and portable, which makes it conven- vertical, and angular lines. ient for students. However, in modern practice the T-square has been replaced by the parallel bar and the drafting machine, as they do not require a constant hand to steady the head. 14 PART I: DRAWINGS, EQUIPMENT, AND FUNDAMENTALS 02.kilmer 2/2/03 12:26 PM Page 15 Parallel Bar The scales on drafting machines can be set at angles by releas- A parallel bar is attached by cleats and pulleys to a particular ing a lock, pressing a release button and turning the head. drawing surface. The bar moves up and down on thin wire that Frequently used angles such as 30, 45, and 60 degrees have positive moves runs over pulleys inside the bar. When properly installed, set points. Scales are available in several lengths, in either archi- the bar can be moved up and down the drawing board and always tectural or metric measurements. They are also available in either be parallel with the top of it. Parallel bars are available in a vari- plastic or aluminum finishes. ety of lengths to fit different drawing board sizes. The parallel bar is easy to use. It permits the drafter to draw long horizontal lines Triangles, Templates, and Compasses and serves as a base for the placement of triangles and other instru- A variety of other drawing tools are available for constructing ver- ments for precision drawing. tical or inclined lines as well as circles, curvilinear shapes not based on fixed-radius circular forms, and other special shapes such as Drafting Machines representations of furniture, plumbing fixtures, and other interior A drafting machine is a combination of several conventional draft- equipment and furnishings. ing tools. It is fixed to the drawing board and consists of vertical and horizontal blades that serve as scales for linear measurement, Triangles eliminating the need for a triangle and T-square for drawing verti- A triangle is a three-sided instrument used with the T-square or cal and horizontal lines. There is also a scale in angular degrees on parallel straightedge for drawing vertical and angular lines (Figure the head that replaces the protractor. 2-6). The most common are 45-degree and 30/60-degree triangles, There are two basic types of drafting machines — the arm type each named for the angles they form. A range of sizes is available, and the track type. The arm type has two arms that pivot in the cen- with a size of 8 or 10 inches (203 x 254 mm) being in the middle of ter with a head at the end of the lower arm — which is clamped to the range. Their size is based on the length of the longest side of the the top edge of the drafting table. The drafter moves the head up right angle. It is best to begin with these; then larger and smaller and down and right and left. The head and the scales on it remain sizes can be added as needed. For example, small triangles, such as parallel to their original setting. The track type has a horizontal 4 inches (101 mm), are useful for hand-lettering and crosshatching track mounted to the top edge of the drafting table with a vertical small areas. track attached to it that slides left and right. The head with the Adjustable triangles can be set for any angle from 0 to 45 scales on it is fastened to the vertical track and slides up and down. degrees. The adjustable triangle is convenient for situations requir- Drafting machines are available for right- or left-handed people. ing a variety of sloping lines, such as for stairs or slanted ceilings. Right-handed people hold the head in place with the left hand. Some triangles are available with recessed edges for use when Left-handed people hold the head in their right hand with the inking. This keeps the edge up off of the paper so the ink doesn’t scales facing the opposite direction. run under the triangle and become smeared. Triangles are avail- CHAPTER 2: DRAFTING EQUIPMENT AND ITS CARE 15 02.kilmer 2/2/03 12:26 PM Page 16 able in a clear (nonyellowing) or colored plastic. They are scratch- resistant and generally have good edge retention. They should not be used as a cutting edge as they are easy to nick, and they must be used and stored carefully. Figure 2-6 Triangles are also Templates used to create straight lines Templates are prepunched patterns representing various shapes when drawing. When used commonly used in interior design and architectural plans (Figure with a parallel bar or T-square, 2-7). Templates help to speed up the drafting process and aid in the angular and vertical lines can production of accurate drawings. There are a variety of templates be drawn. Shown on the left is available, some of which are used regularly, while others are need- a fixed 30-60 triangle; on the ed for special purposes only. There are templates that are used to right is an adjustable triangle. draw circles, squares, windows, doors, electrical symbols, plumbing fixtures, furnishings, and hundreds of other features. The circle template is a very basic and highly useful timesaving device for drawing accurate circles of various sizes as well as curves that are parts of circles. Circles range in size from 1⁄16 inch (1.58 mm) up to 2 inches (50.8 mm) in diameter. Ellipse templates come in similar sizes, but since ellipses vary from near flat to near circular, a series of templates may be needed for each size. However, a single Figure 2-7 Templates are used guide with the most commonly used proportions is available. to speed up the drafting process by tracing the punched French curved templates are excellent tools for drawing irregu- shapes directly onto a drawing. lar curved lines that are not part of a circle or ellipse. These guides Templates come in a variety of consist of at least a dozen traditional forms that can help a design- patterns and scales. er draw almost any flowing curve needed. There are also flexible drawing curves available that can be bent as needed to fit an irreg- ular curved line. They can hold the shape as the line is drawn, then straightened out after use. Other useful templates include forms for both residential and commercial furniture, as well as plumbing fixtures, retail fixtures, and lighting and electrical symbols. Lettering templates are also 16 PART I: DRAWINGS, EQUIPMENT, AND FUNDAMENTALS 02.kilmer 2/2/03 12:27 PM Page 17 available, but even though they may be convenient they often appear stiff and are not frequently used in design offices. Lettering templates are best used for very large letters and numbers that may be difficult to form freehand. Compass A compass is an inverted V-shaped instrument used for drawing circles and arcs (Figure 2-8). It has a pin at the end of one leg and a leadholder at the end of the other. A special device will allow Figure 2-8 Compasses are used to technical pen points to be used with the compass. The best way to draw circles and arcs; this illustra- use a compass is to mark a centerpoint and the radius desired on tion shows a compass with a lead a piece of paper and adjust the compass to that measurement by point, and the attachment used setting the pin on the center point and setting the pencil or pen when drawing with ink. point on the radius mark. Hold the compass firmly at the top, lean- ing it a little in the direction the circle will be drawn, then rotate it. Generally, rotating it in a clockwise direction is easier. Press hard enough to get the desired line weight. Be careful to match line weights of circles and arcs to the rest of the drawing. Scales Measuring tools are extremely important to the interior designer, The term scale also refers to the physical measuring device used because a designer’s plans, elevations, sections, and details must by designers to accurately reduce linear distances to their correct always be drawn with all their dimensions at the same fractional scaled lengths. Scales are special rulers that can be used for meas- part of their real (full-size) dimensions. Architectural and interior uring in a variety of units and that enable the designer to draw an design line work generally represents objects that are much larger object larger than, smaller than, or the same size as the real (full- than the drawing paper; therefore, a proportional measuring sys- size) object. Scales are calibrated in inches or millimeters much tem must be used. This scale of the drawing is always stated on the like a regular ruler. They are available in either a flat or a trian- drawing. When a drawing is drawn to scale, this means that all gular shape (Figure 2-9). Triangular scales are very popular dimensions on the drawing are related to the real object, or space, because as many as four scales can be printed on each face. by an appropriate selected scale ratio. For example, when drawing Generally, a triangular scale has as many as 11 different scales on at a scale of ⁄8" = 1'0", each ⁄8" increment in the drawing represents 1 1 it. The shape also makes them convenient to pick up and use. Flat a foot in the full-size object. scales generally have either a two-bevel or four-bevel edge, CHAPTER 2: DRAFTING EQUIPMENT AND ITS CARE 17 02.kilmer 2/2/03 12:27 PM Page 18 When using the architect’s scale, begin at the 0 point, then count off the number of feet, using the major subdivisions that are marked along the length of the scale. The scaled inches are locat- ed on the other side of the 0 point. The engineer’s scale is a full divided scale, as it has the inches Figure 2-9 Scales are special marked along its edge, which are then divided into decimal parts rulers designed to measure in a of an inch. The engineer’s scale generally contains 6 different divi- variety of units, enabling objects sions/scales. These divisions are indicated as 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, to be drawn at various sizes. and 60. These numbers mean “parts to an inch.” For example, the Scales are available in English 40 scale means 1 inch = 40 feet. As there are 40 subdivisions with- and metric units, and in various in an inch, each mark represents 1 foot. This scale can also be shapes and sizes. A scale should used to represent larger units such as 400 or 4,000 feet per inch. never be used as a straightedge. Engineer’s scales are generally used for drawing large-scale site plans and maps. Metric scales are used when drawing architectural and interior depending on the number of scales they carry. Good-quality scales plans in metric units. The millimeter is the basic unit of the metric must have sharply defined graduations that are close to the edge scale. Metric scales are based on ratios, such as 1:50, which means for accurate measurements. Scales are not meant to be a straight- 1 mm on the scale represents 50 mm. Typical ratios are 1:10, 1:25, edge, and should never be used as a pencil or inking guide when 1:50, 1:100, 1:200, and 1:500. To enlarge a drawing, scales are drawing a straight line. available in 2:1 and 5:1 ratios. Since metric scales are based on the There are several different types of scales, but the interior metric system, using the base 10, it is possible to use single-ratio designer will mainly use the architect’s scale, engineer’s scale, and scales for other ratios. For example, a 1:1 scale with 1-mm mark- metric scale. ings could also be used to represent 1 mm, 10 mm, 100 mm, or The architect’s scale is the one most frequently used by an inte- 1000 mm. A 1:2 metric scale could be used for 1 mm to represent rior designer. It is used for laying out accurate design and con- 20 mm, 200 mm, and so forth. struction drawings in feet and inches. Architectural scales general- ly contain 11 different divisions, where each major division repre- Erasers, Erasing Shields, and Brushes sents 1 foot. The major divisions are indicated as ⁄32, ⁄16, ⁄8, ⁄16, ⁄4, 3 1 1 3 1 To be able to erase errors and correct drawings is very important to ⁄8, ⁄2, ⁄4, 1, 1 ⁄2, and 3. Each one of these divisions represents one 3 1 3 1 the interior designer. Erasability is one of the key advantages of foot on the scale. For example, the ⁄4 scale means ⁄4 of an inch on 1 1 using a pencil or pen for drawings. Erasers, erasing shields, and the scale represents 1 foot. brushes are convenient tools of almost equal importance. 18 PART I: DRAWINGS, EQUIPMENT, AND FUNDAMENTALS 02.kilmer 2/2/03 12:27 PM Page 19 Erasers A wide variety of both rubber and synthetic erasers are available. A good eraser must be capable of completely removing pencil or ink lines without leaving smudge marks or roughing the surface of the paper. For vellum drafting paper, soft rubber erasers should generally be used. There are also special erasers designed to remove ink. However, be careful, as these erasers are too abrasive for some drawing surfaces. Some ink erasers claim to have a sol- vent incorporated into them for better erasing of ink. Erasers are available in either block form or stick form inserted into a holder much like a leadholder (Figure 2-10). Vinyl and other plastic erasers are designed for use on plastic drafting film. Electric erasers are extremely useful when a great amount of erasing is necessary. Electric erasers are small handheld tools that hold long round lengths of eraser that are rotated when turned on. Figure 2-11 An electric eras- The cordless variety is the most convenient (Figure 2-11). er can be very handy when erasing large areas of a drawing and is especially convenient when cordless. Figure 2-10 Erasers come in various shapes and sizes, and different kinds can erase pen- cil or ink. Shown are a mechanical eraser-holder, a plastic block eraser in a sleeve, and a basic block eraser. CHAPTER 2: DRAFTING EQUIPMENT AND ITS CARE 19 02.kilmer 2/2/03 12:27 PM Page 20 Figure 2-12 An eraser shield Erasing Shield allows for precise erasing, as it A small metal or plastic card with prepunched holes and slots is shields the parts of the draw- used to erase precise areas of a drawing, as shown in Figure 2-12. ing that are to remain. The The prepunched holes come in a variety of sizes and shapes, allow- prepunched holes allow the ing the designer to erase small details and control the erasure up designer to erase only those to a particular point. It is also helpful for protecting the drawing lines needing to be erased. surface while using an electric eraser. Although the transparency of a plastic shield can be convenient, a metal shield generally lasts longer. Brushes A dusting brush is useful for keeping drafting surfaces clean and free of debris (Figure 2-13). Erasure crumbs are sometimes left on a drawing surface to help prevent smudges, but if they become too Figure 2-13 Dusting brushes abundant they can cause lines to skip, so it is helpful to brush the can be used to clean an area drawing surface often. in preparation for drawing, or to clean erasure crumbs Additional Equipment from a drawing in process. A number of additional tools may assist the designer. For example, full-circular (360 degrees) and half-circular (180 degrees) protrac- tors aid in the layout and measuring of angles on a drawing. They are manufactured in a variety of sizes in both metal and plastic (Figure 2-14). Figure 2-14 Protractors aid designers in laying out and measuring angles. They come in a variety of sizes and materials. 20 PART I: DRAWINGS, EQUIPMENT, AND FUNDAMENTALS 03.kilmer 2/2/03 12:33 PM Page 21 DRAWING AND DRAFTING FUNDAMENTALS Drawing and drafting are forms of visual language that use lines, 3 pictorial images, and symbols to convey specific meanings. Like spoken language, written language, and body language, this visu- al language has its own unique applications. In the design field, drawing, also called sketching or idea generation, is used as a tech- nique for developing and communicating ideas. Preliminary sketches are used to initiate and explore basic concepts, as illus- trated in Figure 3-1. These can be presented to others as is, or refined into presentation drawings that are developed to scale and rendered in more detail. Drawing is thus a means of communica- tion used by designers to effectively convey ideas and converse with one another about how to turn them into reality. Drafting is a particular type of drawing that conveys specific information about something’s size, composition, assembly, and other exacting characteristics. Drafting is usually a means to an end; that is, it serves as a guide on how to make something. For these reasons, drafting is founded on a number of basic premises Figure 3-1 Sketching is a and rules. A draftsperson’s specialized drawings, generally referred form of visual communica- to as working drawings or construction drawings, help the design- tion used to initiate and er to develop ideas and communicate to the builder the exact explore basic concepts. parameters of their design concepts — assisting in the construction This illustration shows vari- of a physical interior environment or building (Figure 3-2). ous sketches all relating to Construction drawings require a great deal of effort to draw, as each other, helping to visu- they must be clear, concise, and accurate, with high-quality lines alize a concept. and legible dimensions and notes. 21 03.kilmer 2/2/03 12:33 PM Page 22 To draw and draft at a professional level, one must learn some basic skills and techniques. This chapter will introduce the basics needed to produce quality and easily readable drawings and so effectively communicate with others. Figure 3-2 A precise Starting the Drawing drawing illustrating how Drawings are executed on a paper or plastic sheet that is placed on stairs and landings should the drawing board or surface. It is usually held in place on the be constructed. drawing surface with drafting tape placed at the four corners, as illustrated in Figure 3-3. The opposite corners are pulled and taped alternately to stretch and flatten the sheet. When one is finished with the drawing or needs to remove it for a short period of time, the tape is carefully removed and discarded. The sheet can then be stored flat or rolled for convenience. There is a tendency for begin- ners to roll original drawings and prints with the original line work or printed side on the inside, probably in an effort to protect the line work. However, the preferred way to roll a drawing is to do it with the printed information on the outside. In this way, as the drawing is unrolled, it will tend to curl away from the viewer and toward the surface it is placed on (Figure 3-4). This keeps the draw- ing from constantly curling up toward the viewer. This technique is also effective for multiple copies stapled together in sets. Drawings are produced on a variety of surfaces with varying types of media, as discussed in Chapter 2. One of the first steps in composing a properly scaled drawing is to select the best size and format for the surface. To do this effectively, a number of variables must be taken into account. These include the complexity and scale of the drawing, the reproduction technique selected, and the viewing conditions the reader will be under. 22 PART I: DRAWINGS, EQUIPMENT, AND FUNDAMENTALS 03.kilmer 2/2/03 12:33 PM Page 23 Figure 3-4 Rolling drawings with the printed information on the inside causes them to curl and hide the drawing from the viewer when unrolled and laid flat. Rolling them with the Figure 3-3 The drawing information on the outside paper is held in place on the allows the viewer to look at drawing surface with small the drawings without having pieces of drafting tape. the paper curl up and hide the drawing. Drawing Page Layout In manual drawing, one should start with very light lines and Original drawings, particularly those done in pencil, need to be darken those as needed for the final drawing (Figure 3-5). On the kept clean to provide for the clearest reproduction. Smudged draw- computer, “pen” settings determine the value or thickness of a line ings will often produce smudged prints that are difficult and time- (Figure 3-6). There is no preliminary stage of drawing with light consuming to read. Graphite from pencils is the greatest threat to lines. In manual drawings, it is good practice to start drawing at drawing cleanliness. Sliding hands, elbows, and equipment over the upper portion of the sheet and progress toward the bottom of pencil lines will blur them and produce an undesirable patina over the paper. In this way, most drawings will not be disturbed as you the entire drawing surface. The same is true with ink drawings, move the equipment and hands down the sheet. Of course, com- whether they are done by hand or computer. Time must be allowed puter drawing allows one to begin almost anywhere on the sheet, for the ink to dry. Equipment should be lifted and placed over draw- compose the drawings, and print out the results in one clean plot. ings, not slid from one area to another. Regular washing of hands The machine doesn’t worry about top to bottom or left to right — and equipment will also help prevent smudging of line work. it follows the composition set by the designer. CHAPTER 3: DRAWING AND DRAFTING FUNDAMENTALS 23 03.kilmer 2/2/03 12:33 PM Page 24 Figure 3-5 When draw- ing manually, light lines should be used to lay out an image or text. Final lines can then be dark- ened according to the desired line hierarchy. Figure 3-6 When using the computer to create a drawing, various “pen” weights/widths can be assigned to lines for the desired line hierarchy. Line Types Lines are drawn to describe objects, hidden conditions, and impor- tant relationships between components and space. A line drawn on a surface has both direction and weight. The weight of a line refers to its thickness and intensity; a line can also be continuous or dashed. The direction can be straight, curved, diagonal, or a combination of these. In drafting, continuous lines of various weights are used to represent objects and major elements such as structural walls and columns. Dotted lines are usually used to