Construction Documents PDF

CONSTRUCTION DOCUMENTS 85 Removed FIGURE 4-21 Example of a removed section...

CONSTRUCTION DOCUMENTS 85 Removed FIGURE 4-21 Example of a removed section Section Construction Drawings Construction drawings are made when par¬ ticularly complex and intricate scenery is to be built. These drawings are generally produced by the shop responsible for the actual fabrication of the set, and not by the designer. The focus of these drawings is the construction methods and components to be used to achieve the finished results V required by the designer. A construction 30.0° drawing is often a rear elevation of a wall or flat. In this view, the framing members can be clearly illustrated. Some construc¬ tion drawings omit the finished surface to reveal the inner skeleton of the scenic unit. FIGURE 4-22 An isometric drawing 7 The same drafting conventions and rules discussed previously in this chapter apply to construction drawings. Examples are provided in chapter six. To convert designer drawings to con¬ struction drawings, many technicians trace the outlines of the designer’s drawings or 86 THE STAGECRAFT HANDBOOK superimpose their drawing over the top of a copy of the designer’s drawing. PAINT ELEVATIONS The designer’s vision of the painted set is communicated through the use of a painted model, paint elevations, full-scale samples, pictures or a combination of these tech¬ niques. Paint elevations are customarily Vi scale front elevations of each scenic ele¬ ment painted without the effects of stage lighting. The precise colors and painting techniques are depicted. Color swatches or samples and full-size details, along with notes specifying procedures to be followed or techniques to be used, can and should be included. For particularly elaborate or freehand- rendered scenic units such as a drop painted with a landscape scene, a 1'- to 2'-scale grid is placed over the painter’s elevation to aid in the process of enlarging the painting to full scale. This grid is typi¬ cally drawn on a clear sheet of acetate, which is then positioned over the painter’s elevation. A full-scale version of the grid is also chalked onto the scenic unit. The FIGURE 4-24 A cabinet drawing painter can use the grids as a reference to sketch in the painted scene. MODELS Many designers choose to build three- dimensional scale models of their sets. Models are very effective in illustrating all  CONSTRUCTION DOCUMENTS 87 three dimensions of a set and the spatial relationships among the elements of the set and the stage. They are also extremely use¬ ful in illustrating the scene changes that will take place during the production. The level of detail in a scale model is dependent on the skill and patience of the model maker. I have seen models that are works of art in and of themselves. However, as intricate and accurate as some models may be, they are not a substitute for scale drawings. A very simple model known as a white model can be easily constructed without the time and expense of a fully detailed model. This facsimile provides the three- FIGURE 4-25A A model created by Melissa Anderson dimensional benefits of a model that are so useful in understanding how a set fits together and moves. A white model is gen¬ erally constructed of foam-core or mat board. The basic scenic units are cut out and assembled without applied detail, color or texture. One method for quickly creating a white model with a bit more information is to adhere a copy of the designer’s elevations to foam-core or mat board, and then simply cut out the scenic units, following the lines of the elevations. Fasten a copy of the ground plan to a piece of plywood or framed Masonite as a guide to assembly. Secure the cutout elevations in their re¬ FIGURE 4-25B A model created by Ellen Files spective locations on the ground plan and you have a white model with the added in¬ formation supplied by the elevations. FIGURE 4-25C A model created by Jennie Humphrey CHAPTER 5 SCENIC MATERIALS T he materials used in building sce¬ nery are generally easy to acquire, relatively inexpensive and easy to Board Lumber The most desirable woods for general sce¬ nery construction are Northern (Eastern) work with. In most smaller opera¬ white pine and Idaho white pine. These tions, wood, wood by-products and fabric particular species are in short supply and are the principal construction materials. not available everywhere in the country. Steel has become a significant building ma¬ Slightly less desirable but still very usable terial in larger shops due to the engineering are Western white pine and Ponderosa requirements of much of today’s scenery pine, which are more commonly available and environmental considerations. The rest but weigh slightly more. Western red ce¬ is hardware, fasteners and adhesives that, dar, white wood and redwood can be used with few exceptions these days, are no for framing, but do have their drawbacks. longer specific to the theater industry. For weight-bearing structures, a stronger and stiffer wood is desirable. Douglas fir WOOD and Southern pine are good choices under There are only a few types of wood that these conditions. have all the characteristics required for All board lumber is quality graded for scenery construction. Fortunately, they are appearance and structural integrity. The not hard to find in most parts of the coun¬ best lumber falls in the category of select try. In choosing wood, look for straight and is rated from A to D. A select is very grain and even texture; this will ensure a rare in any quantity and is considered for wood that will machine well and is gener¬ all practical purposes as hypothetical. B se¬ ally easy to work. The need for scenery to lect is difficult to acquire and expensive. be easily shifted and transported demands In practice, the top grade for use in the con¬ a wood that is of medium weight, strong struction of scenery is referred to as C and and rigid. It should also be straight and not Better. This grade of lumber has a limited prone to warping. Well-seasoned lumber is amount of small blemishes or defects that desirable to maintain this characteristic. do not detract from its appearance or struc¬ Finally, the wood should be inexpensive tural integrity. D select allows more sur¬ and available in sufficient quantities to face blemishes, but none so great as to de¬ meet the needs of your project. While hard¬ tract from a painted finish or in any way woods such as oak, walnut and cherry are significantly affect the structural proper¬ beautiful and strong, they are also heavy, ties of the material. hard to work and very expensive. Soft¬ After the select grades come the com¬ woods such as pine, hemlock and fir have mon grades. These grades are rated / characteristics more suitable to construct¬ through 5, with / being the best of the cate¬ ing scenery. gory. Grades / and 2 are generally consid-  SCENIC MATERIALS 89 ered structurally sound and can be used for scenery framing or where appearance is not a factor. Grades 3 through 5 are increas¬ ingly difficult to use without a consider¬ able amount of waste, due to the large num¬ ber of knotholes and other defects that must be avoided. Sizing Board lumber is referenced by its thickness and width and is sold by the board foot. A board that is 1" thick and 12" wide is known as a 1 by 12 (written 1X12). Board feet are calculated using the thickness, width and length of a piece of lumber. A board foot is 12"X 12"X 1" thick. A piece of 1X12 that is 12" long is one board foot. The same 1X12 stock at 16' long would be 16 board feet. Pricing is generally quoted per one thousand board feet. The 1X12 reference is a nominal size. The ac¬ tual size of the lumber is the mill size, or dressed size, which is smaller. A 1 X 12 will actually be VA thick and 11!4" wide. A 2X4 is actually 1VA thick by 3VA wide. Mill sizing is standard for all board lumber. You can special-order lumber at its full size but it is very expensive. Board lumber can be purchased in the following standard sizes and generally comes in maximum 16' lengths (without special order). 1 X 2—Used for small framing members. 1 X 3—Used for standard framing. 1 X4—Used for battens or large framed units. 1 X 6 and 8—Used for door and window casings and framing, and architectural trim. 1 X 10 and 12—Used for properties, fur¬ niture and architectural trim. y4"X 3 and 4—Used for light-platform framing and large framed units. 2X4, 6, 8, 10 and 12—Used for weight¬ bearing structures and trusses. Uarger size lumber such as 1X12 can be ripped down to any smaller width as 90 THE STAGECRAFT HANDBOOK required. Four pieces of 1x3 can be cut plywood. Flowever, there are some envi¬ from a single piece of 1 X 12. ronmental concerns in using this product and the industry is trying to find an accept¬ Sheet Goods able alternative. Sheet goods, or paneling, are manufac¬ tured products created from the by¬ Particle Board products of wood. A variety of different Particle board is manufactured from small products are available, and many have uses wood chips, sawdust and glue. This ma¬ in the construction of scenery. All these terial costs considerably less than ply¬ products come in 4' X 8' sheets and in wood, but is also considerably weaker and varying thicknesses. They are sold by the a good deal heavier. Particle board is very sheet or by the square foot. New and im¬ hard and brittle, making it tough on tools proved products are developed often in this and difficult to work. Nails are hard to category. drive into particle board, and the material crumbles easily around the edges or when Plywood screws are used. Particle board is often Plywood is commonly used in scenery used for cabinets and countertops. This construction for flooring surfaces, includ¬ material is not a substitute for plywood ing false floors, platform lids, step risers used for platform lids. and treads, profile cutouts and some forms of framing. It is manufactured by bonding MDF (Medium-Density Fiberpine) several thin layers of wood together, with MDF is a very fine-grain version of parti¬ the grain of adjacent layers placed at 90° cle board. Because of this fine grain, the to each other. An odd number of layers is edge of a panel machines very well during used to ensure the grain runs in the same operations such as routing. direction on both faces of the panel. It is rated for interior or exterior use, which is reflective of the adhesive used in bonding OSB (Oriented Strand Board) the layers of wood together. Standard OSB is composed of compressed strands thicknesses of !4", 3/s", Vi, Ms", 3// and 1" arranged in layers (usually three to five) are commonly used in scenery construc¬ oriented at right angles to one another. The tion. Plywood is typically manufactured orientation of layers achieves the same ad¬ using several species of wood and graded vantages of the cross-laminated layers in for the appearance of its two faces. There plywood. These panels can be used in the are five grades, which are specified A, B, same applications as plywood when the C, C plugged, and £>, with A being the best. finish is not important. OSB is often re¬ Plywood can be purchased with almost ferred to as waferboard. any combination of face grades and glue type. Masonite Masonite is the brand name for a sheet ma¬ Lauan terial made of wood pulp. It is also known This hardwood plywood, made of Philip¬ as hardboard or pressboard. In scenery pine mahogany, is used predominantly as construction it is typically used in either the covering for hard-covered flats. It is Ms" or M/ thickness for nonstructural floor¬ also used for facings and other profile uses. ing and facing. Masonite comes tempered It comes in Ms"- and '//-thick 4X8 sheets, (a very hard surface) or untempered. It can and can also be purchased in 4X10 sheets also be purchased smooth one side or in the Ms" thickness. This inaterial is lighter, smooth two sides and in lengths of 8, 10, easier to work and less expensive than Ms" 12 and 16 feet.  SCENIC MATERIALS 91 Quarter Half Cove Ogee Round Round Picture Crown Rail Cornice FIGURE 5-2 Standard molding shapes Homosote Celotex Homosote is also a brand name for a sheet Another brand name for fiberboard, this material manufactured from compressed product is less expensive and more readily fibers. This is not a structural material, but available than Homosote. It is softer and works well for sound deadening as part of requires greater care to prevent compres¬ the decking of a floor or platform. It can sion when used in flooring applications. also be used as the top surface of a deck It is softer and requires greater care to for a sculpted or heavily textured finish. prevent compression when used in flooring applications. 92 THE STAGECRAFT HANDBOOK FIGURE 5-3 Moulding able, and the material is easily recyclable. Standard structural steel shapes Moulding is sold by the running foot or The costs are very competitive and often linear foot. It can be purchased in a number superior to wood when cost to strength is of standard patterns and sizes. Some of the considered. most common patterns used in the theater are half round, quarter round, cove and Structural Steel crown. A variety of other shapes for door The steel used in scenery applications is and window casings, baseboards, chair mild steel, or structural steel (A7 or A36) rails, picture rails and cornice mouldings with a plain oxide finish. For machine are also available. Note that it may be less parts, choose low-carbon machinery steel. expensive to mill your own moulding with A variety of cross-sectional shapes are the right tools. In chapter six, you will available, as illustrated above. learn how a few shapes can be used to build up an elaborate cornice moulding. Tubing Round, rectangular and square steel tubing METAL is perhaps the most useful steel construc¬ The costs, availability, quality and envi¬ tion material for scenery. Tubing is a great ronmental considerations of using lumber alternative for board lumber, and in many have made steel a desirable alternative to cases is superior. Steel tubing comes in 20' traditional wood construction. In addition, lengths and is sized by its outside dimen¬ the structural characteristics of steel meet sions and wall thickness. The table in Fig¬ many of the demands of modern scenic- ure 5-4 provides information on the most design practices. A wide variety of steel useful shapes and sizes. shapes and sizes are now commonly avail¬  SCENIC MATERIALS 93 Pipe Pipe is sized by its inside diameter and is available in three wall thicknesses. The standard wall thickness is schedule 40, ex¬ tra strong (XS) is schedule 80, and double extra strong (XXS) has no schedule num¬ ber. Numerous threaded fittings are avail¬ able, such as 45° and 90° elbows, tees, crosses, couplings, caps and flanges. Other joining systems such as scaffolding clamps and roto-locks are also available and are very useful in erecting scaffolding, grids and railings from ordinary pipe. PLASTICS Plastics are synthetic or organic materials that may be shaped when soft and then hardened. A more general definition of plastic is material capable of being moulded, or of receiving form. Perhaps be¬ cause of the often intimidating chemical names or the enormous number of these FIGURE 5-4 Beadboard Square steel tubing sizes materials, plastics have not made their way Beadboard is manufactured from expand¬ and weights chart easily into some theater shops. Commer¬ able polystyrene beads and is often mistak¬ cial shops and larger institutions have em¬ enly called Styrofoam. It is most often braced many types of plastics, but smaller found formed into sheets for use by the operations have only isolated experiences building trades as insulation. Some compa¬ with these materials. nies can manufacture expanded polysty¬ rene into almost any size blocks per your Styrofoam specifications. The most prevalent form of plastic in gen¬ eral use is Styrofoam. This is actually a Acrylic trade name for rigid expanded polystyrene Another relatively popular plastic is foam (RPF). Styrofoam is available in a acrylic. This material is most commonly variety of densities. The craft grade of Sty¬ known in its sheet form by the trade name rofoam is white and its resistance to com¬ Plexiglas. Acrylic comes in sheets, rods pression is a comparatively low 15 to 25 and bars, as well as some extruded shapes. pounds per square inch (psi). It is com¬ It is also available in a variety of textures monly available in 4 X 8 sheets and comes and colors, including clear and frosted. in -VC', 1" or 2" thicknesses. Blue Styro¬ foam, which is actually designed as insula¬ Lexan tion, comes in compressive strengths of 40, Lexan, a trade name for polycarbonate, is 60 and 115 psi. Styrofoam is also available highly resistant to impact. Similar to in blocks 6" to 10" thick. When using this acrylic, it is ideally suited for transparent material, read all the safety literature con¬ weight-bearing surfaces. cerning fire ratings, health hazards and proper disposal. 94 THE STAGECRAFT HANDBOOK Ethafoam covered flats, and to provide a quality Ethafoam is low-density polyethylene. It is painting surface on hard-covered scenic a flexible material available in sheets and units. Muslin is typically available in rods. The rods can be purchased in sizes widths ranging from 40" to 197" and in a from Va" to 6" with the smaller sizes avail¬ limited assortment of colors, including nat¬ able in 1,000' rolls. Because of its flexibil¬ ural (or unbleached), sky blue, night blue, ity, the rods are particularly useful for a light gray, bleached white and black. It can number of moulding and trim applications also be purchased as a flame-retardant fab¬ on curved surfaces. ric and in light, medium or heavy weights. The number of threads per square inch de¬ Polyurethane Foam termines the weight of the fabric. A heavy¬ Polyurethane foam is a two-part liquid weight muslin will have a higher thread that, when mixed together, expands and count than a lightweight muslin, and con¬ hardens into a rigid polystyrene-like ma¬ sequently will be stronger and more terial. Once hard, the material can be opaque. carved very easily. The liquid can also be Wider widths of muslin are also avail¬ mixed in a mold to form an unlimited vari¬ able for large drops. Seamless muslin from ety of shapes, or sprayed onto a form to one supplier is available in widths of 14'5", provide the texture and look of rock and 20'4" and 32'9". It comes in natural, other natural materials. This material is bleached white, sky blue and gray. available under some trade names and is often referred to as A-B Foam. Canvas Canvas is a very strong and durable, PVC closely woven cotton fabric used primarily PVC, polyvinyl chloride, is used to manu¬ for ground cloths and to provide a quality facture a wide variety of products. It is paint surface for false floors and platforms. most commonly used in the theater as pipe, Canvas is also used as a covering for scenic but is also available in rods and sheets. As units that are very large or expected to pipe it is most commonly available in di¬ withstand heavy use or rough treatment. It ameters of >/8" to over 12". A large assort¬ is available in widths of 68" to 144" and ment of PVC pipe fittings are available. typically in natural and black. Additional colors are available through larger suppli¬ FABRIC ers. Canvas is also classified by weight, The fabrics used in theatrical-scenery con¬ with 7 to 18 ounces being fairly common. struction and general stage use fall into three basic categories: scenery fabrics, Sharkstooth Scrim stage draperies and specialty fabrics. Each Sharkstooth scrim is used extensively for of these is discussed in detail below. theatrical applications requiring a bleed- through effect. When front-lit at an ex¬ Scenery Fabrics tremely steep angle and in the absence of Scenery fabrics are used in scenic con¬ any light behind the scrim, the fabric and struction with the goal of representing any scene or decor painted on it appear to something else. These fabrics are typically be opaque. When the front light is removed meant to be painted. and the scene behind the scrim is lit, the scrim and its painting appear to dissolve, Muslin revealing the scene behind. Sharkstooth Muslin, a plain-weave cotton fabric, is the scrim is a very open-weave fabric. It comes most common material in this category and in black, white, sky blue and gray, in is used primarily for drops and soft- widths of 15'6" to 35'.  SCENIC MATERIALS 95 Leno-Filled Scrim Burlap Leno-filled scrim is an opaque, densely Burlap is a very coarse, heavy, plain-weave knit fabric. Unlike sharkstooth scrim, leno fabric made of cotton jute or hemp. It is will not render a bleed-through effect. most commonly used to provide a textured Leno is very elastic, making it virtually surface. It comes in a natural color and is wrinkle-free and an excellent choice for available in a variety of widths and cycloramas or full-stage backings. It is weights. Erosion cloth is a form of burlap available in white, gray or sky blue, and that is used very often in scenic applica¬ can be painted. It comes in 31' widths. tions. This material looks like coarse net¬ ting but does not have the strength to be Cotton Scrim used for lifting. Cotton scrim is an open-weave fabric made of very fine threads. It can be used like Stage Draperies sharkstooth scrim in smaller and less de¬ These fabrics are used primarily for stage manding applications. It is available in a curtains such as front drapes, travelers, natural finish in widths of 36" or 58". masking legs, borders and backdrops. They are also used to cover constructed pieces Theatrical Gauze such as portals and hard legs, and as Theatrical Gauze is coarser and a larger general-purpose masking fabric. weave than cotton scrim. It comes in natu¬ ral and white, and in 72" widths. Velour Velour is the first choice for stage draper¬ Bobbinet ies. It has a long, thick nap, which gives Bobbinet has a larger open weave than the fabric a rich texture and absorbs light sharkstooth and cannot be lit to appear well, making it an excellent fabric for opaque. It comes in white and black, and masking drapes. It comes in a wide variety can be painted. The 97" width has slightly of colors, though black is standard for smaller openings than the 31' width. masking. The standard width for cotton ve¬ lour is 54", and it is available in 12 to 32 Scenic Netting oz. weights. For permanent or stock dra¬ Scenic netting is used to support cut-out peries, a heavyweight velour such as 25 oz. drops, borders and legs. The fabric is 1" is most desirable. For scenic pieces, 16 to open netting which tends to disappear on¬ 19 oz. velour is recommended. Velour can stage. It is available in 24-yard pieces 30' and should be flame-retardant. wide. Scenic netting is available in black and white, and in cotton or nylon; the cot¬ ton fabric can be dyed. Velveteen Velveteen is a lightweight velour available in 45" to 48" widths and in a wide variety Opera Netting of colors. It, too, can and should be flame- Opera netting is similar to sharkstooth but retardant. with a more open weave. It comes in 29' widths in white and black. Wool Serge Cheesecloth Wool serge is used in England in place of Cheesecloth is commonly used to cover velour for stage draperies. It is an ex¬ foam and plastic. It is similar to gauze and tremely dense, brushed-weave fabric with comes 36" wide. It comes in white and can excellent light-absorption properties. It be painted. comes in black in a 59" width. 96 THE STAGECRAFT HANDBOOK Duvetyn aptations. Some simple projects may allow Duvetyn is a soft felted fabric used exten¬ you your choice of fastener. In other appli¬ sively for masking and blackout drapes. It cations, you will need to rely on the unique is an inexpensive substitute for velour, but characteristics of only one of these does not come close to the richness or fasteners. depth of velour. It comes in black and is available in 54" widths. Nails Nails are generally used in joining wood Commando Cloth to wood in scenery construction. The most Commando cloth is another name for duve¬ frequently used nails are common nails, tyn. The name duvetyn is more commonly box nails and finish nails. These nails can used on the West Coast. The name com¬ be purchased loose for use with a hammer mando cloth sometimes refers to a heavy¬ or packaged for use in a pneumatic nailer. weight duvetyn. It also comes in white, A busy or professional shop will want to gray and beige, and can be found in some take advantage of the efficiency of a pneu¬ additional colors. matic system. Other Stage Draperies Common Nails There are a variety of other fabrics that are Common nails have a flat head and range used for stage draperies. Some are tex¬ is size from 2D (1 inch) to 60D (6 inches). tured, while others have patterns woven The length of a nail is expressed in D or into the fabric. These fabrics are generally pennyweight. A 2D nail may be called a available in assorted colors, and all of them two-penny nail. Just how this method of are available in black. They range in width sizing came into being is not exactly clear. from 48" to 54". They are sold as Nassau The two predominant theories associate chevron repp (herringbone pattern), Atlas the notation or terminology with either the oxford repp (a heavy herringbone pattern original cost of a specific size nail or its with a homespun texture), ranger cloth, weight. From 2D to 10D, the length of the reno and vegas. nail is Vi plus a 14 for each D (see the " chart in Figure 5-5). Nails less than 2D are Specialty Fabrics specified in inches. Those above 10D do A huge array of other fabrics are often used not follow a pattern. Common nails can be in scenic applications of one kind or an¬ purchased with a ring, or grooved, shank other: display fabrics, such as nylon, taf¬ for extra holding power. feta, and chintz, in an assortment of colors; a wonderful lightweight and flowing inex¬ Box Nails pensive silk known as China silk; felt in Box nails have a large flat head, and a a huge assortment of colors; and an ever¬ thinner-diameter shank than common growing array of metallic fabrics. Mylar nails, and come in a smaller range of sizes. rain curtains, Glame, slit drapes, metallic They can be purchased as coated nails or scrims and shrink mirror are examples of ring shank, which increases their holding popular metallic fabrics. Check with a the¬ power. atrical supplier for a complete range of products and samples in this category. Finish Nails Finish nails are used to secure moulding FASTENERS or in any application where exposed nail Basically, four types of mechanical fasten¬ heads would be obtrusive. They have a ers are used in scenery construction. Each very small head, which can be driven just comes in a variety of shapes, sizes and ad¬ below the surface of the wood so as not to  SCENIC MATERIALS 97 Pennyweight 2d 3d 4d 6d 8d lOd 12d 16d 20d 30d 40d 50d 60d Length in inches 1 1.25 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.25 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 be visible. In intimate settings, the hole can Staples FIGURE 5-5 Nail sizing chart be filled with wood filler or spackle, de¬ In addition to staples for hand staplers and pending on the type of finish being applied. electric fabric staplers, a wide range of sta¬ A brad is a very small version of a finish ples for pneumatic staple guns are avail¬ nail. able for use in scenery construction. They are sized by the width of the staple (known Duplex Nails as the crown) the staple length and the Duplex nails are also known as double¬ gauge of the wire from which the staple head or scaffolding nails. They are used for is formed. Staples are commonly available temporary fastening. The first head rests with crowns from V\b" to 1", Vn" to 3" in against the material when set; the top head length, and in fine-, medium- and heavy- remains approximately W above the sur¬ gauge wire (22 to 15 gauge). Staples are face to enable the claw of a hammer to grip an excellent choice for securing corner the nail for removal. Duplex nails are sized blocks, keystones and hard covers to flat as common nails. frames. Roofing Nails Screws Roofing nails have wide, flat heads, which Wood Screws makes them useful in holding soft and eas¬ Wood screws are most useful when a joint ily compressible materials like Homosote needs to be taken apart at a later date, to or Celotex. These nails can also be pur¬ fasten hardware to scenic units, and on oc¬ chased for use in a pneumatic nailer. casions when the clamping force and hold¬ ing power of a screw can be used to advan¬ Clout Nails tage. Screws are sized by length in Vs" Clout nails are unique to scenery construc¬ increments and the diameter of the shaft at tion, but are no longer used professionally. its widest point. The shape of the screw These nails are designed to penetrate head is either flat, oval or round, and de¬ through the wood, strike a metal plate signed commonly for either a slotted or placed under the material and curl back Phillips screwdriver. Phillips-head screws into the wood fibers. This technique cre¬ have gained in popularity with the in¬ ates a secure joint, but modern techniques creased use of screw guns or electric drills and tools have left this fastener behind. to drive them. The Phillips-head design en¬ ables the driving bit to be seated and hold Corrugated Fasteners its position on the screw better than the Corrugated fasteners are somewhat odd plain slot design. items that can come in handy from time to time. They can be used to temporarily hold Drywall Screws a corner joint together until a permanent Drywall screws have also increased in us¬ fastening can be completed. They come 14" age with the adoption of screw guns. These to Vi" deep and are available for use in screws were originally designed to fasten pneumatic nailers. drywall (gypsum board) to wood or metal 98 THE STAGECRAFT HANDBOOK framing studs. In the theater, they are re¬ Machine Bolts placing nails in many instances, and are Machine bolts have square or hexagonal very useful for certain applications. They heads and are threaded over approximately have a bugle-shaped Phillips-head, a nar¬ the first 1 Vi of the shank. row shaft, a very sharp tip or a self-drilling tip, and coarse, sharp threads. A trim head Stove Bolts is also available when appearance is a con¬ Stove bolts have flat or round slotted heads sideration. Drywall screws are tempered, and are threaded over the entire length of which causes them to shatter under certain the bolt shank. conditions. Because they are so easy and convenient to use, they are sometimes used Machine Screws in inappropriate situations. Drywall screws Machine screws are like stove bolts, but should not be used to fasten hardware or with finer threads. against metal of any kind. Carriage Bolts Lag Screws Carriage bolts have a round head and a Lag screws are very large, heavy-duty square portion of shank just below the wood screws. They come with a square or head. The square portion is designed to hex head and are sometimes called lag prevent the bolt from turning when set into bolts. wood. It is threaded over the first 1 Vi" of the shank. Sheet-Metal Screws Sheet-metal screws are designed to fasten Other Bolts and Adaptations metal to metal. The shaft is not tapered, as There are some very useful bolt adapta¬ in wood screws, and is threaded all the way tions and some very exotic bolts that are to the head. A hole equal in size to the used in scenery construction. Eye bolts, U- diameter of the shaft is required for use. bolts, elevator bolts, threaded rod, J-bolts and, for rigging and other high-strength Self-Drilling Screws needs, graded bolts are some of the items Self-drilling screws, sometimes known as you may want to investigate for future Tek screws, combine a drill and screw into needs. a single efficient unit to save time and labor Nuts are typically hexagonal or square. costs. They are designed to drill their own Wing nuts are used in temporary situations pilot hole into light-gauge metal. This is a and can be tightened and loosened by hand. terrific fastener to use when applying wood Washers are often required to spread the coverings to steel frames. forces of compression over a larger area than that of the bolt head and nut. Plain Bolts washers or fender washers are used under A bolt is a fastener that is inserted through normal conditions. Locking washers can a hole and secured with a nut. Their size is be used to prevent the nut from loosening specified by diameter, length and number due to vibration. of threads per inch. Threads are classified A knife-thread insert or T-nut can be set by the Unified National Thread Series. The into wood to provide receiving threads for most common series in use in scenery con¬ a bolt instead of a nut. struction is UNC (coarse). UNF (fine) is used primarily for tools and machinery, or Adhesives in situations where higher strength and re¬ Adhesives are another category of prod¬ sistance to loosening as a result of vibra¬ ucts that come in a dizzying variety of tions are required. choices, many of which are applicable to  SCENIC MATERIALS 99 FIGURE 5-6 Useful hinges very specific materials and circumstances. Construction Adhesives The scene shop requires only a few varie¬ A variety of construction adhesives have ties under most circumstances. Do not hes¬ been developed for industrial applications. itate to check with local suppliers if you These products are formulated for porous have unusual requirements. There is proba¬ or nonporous materials; some, such as bly some industry that has a similar set of mastic, are formulated specifically for circumstances for which an adhesive has foam. Many construction adhesives can be been developed. Read all cautionary infor¬ purchased in tubes for application with a mation before using these adhesives. caulking gun. Check with your local sup¬ plier for the brands available in your area. Yellow Glue Yellow glue, or carpenter’s glue, is used for Epoxy most wood-on-wood applications. It can be Epoxy is used when a waterproof adhesive purchased in 55-gallon drums or small is required. It generally comes in two parts, squeeze bottles. It dries in one to two which are mixed together for use. Epoxies hours. Yellow glue should not be used to are very strong and fast drying. adhere muslin to flat frames because it dis¬ colors the fabric. Contact Cement Contact cement is most commonly used to White Glue adhere nonporous materials. Its advantage White glue is more flexible, and is suitable is that it holds on contact, which can be for use with fabrics, wood and paper. It can very useful for some theater applications. be diluted and cleaned with water before it Latex-based contact cement works with dries. foam. 100 THE STAGECRAFT HANDBOOK Glue Sticks Hot melt glue sticks are used with a glue gun for applications that do not require strength. Hardware The theater has developed an inventory of very specialized hardware over the years. However, changes in scenic styles and construction techniques, and improve¬ ments in tools, have made much of this theatrical hardware virtually obsolete. Some of the rigging hardware, which will be discussed later in this chapter, remains useful, but many items have been elimi¬ nated or replaced with more commonly Mortise Latch available substitutes. Hinges Among the infinite variety of hinges manu¬ factured for one purpose or another, there are four basic types (illustrated in Figure 5-6 on page 99) that are regularly used in theatrical applications. All of them are available in various sizes and an assort¬ ment of variations. 1. The back-flap hinge is the most theater-specific of the hinges. It is avail¬ able with a tight pin or loose pin. The loose pin variety is typically used to temporarily join two scenic units together. The pin is easily inserted or removed to facilitate quick scene shifts. The tight-pin back-flap hinge is used for longer lasting unions. 2. The butt hinge is most commonly found on doors. It is designed to be mor¬ Hook & Eye Magnetic tised into the edge of the door and the door Catch jamb. 3. The piano hinge is also known as a continuous hinge. It is usually available in 6' and 8' lengths and can be cut to any length required. 4. Strap hinges can also be either tight pin or loose pin and come in a useful T configuration. Catch Latches FIGURE 5-7 Vat ious latches Latches are used to secure doors, cup¬ boards and windows, as well as for a vari-  SCENIC MATERIALS 101 Rigid Caster Swivel Caster Furniture Caster Rug Runner ety of other creative uses. Figure 5-7 illus¬ FIGURE 5-8 Common casters trates some of the latches commonly used in scenery construction. Casters Casters used in theatrical scenery are clas¬ sified as either swivel or rigid. Rigid cast¬ ers are also referred to as fixed, straight or stationary casters. Rigid casters limit movement along a single line, while swivel casters allow for movement in any direc¬ tion. Some swivel casters are equipped with a locking mechanism that turns them into rigid casters. Furniture casters may employ a ball or roller in place of the wheel. When selecting a caster, consider the composition of the wheel, the load the caster can support and the overall size of the caster. The composition of the wheels will impact the capacity, reliability, noise level and level of floor protection. Polyure¬ thane, neoprene and nylon wheels will pro¬ vide good floor protection, a very low noise level while rolling and moderate rel¬ iability performance, but tend to have lower load capacities than similar-sized wheels composed of other materials. Metal, solid rubber, phenolic and polyo¬ lefin wheels will generally have greater ca¬ pacities and superior rollability. They are also noisy and provide low to moderate FIGURE 5-9 A stage brace supporting a flat floor protection. Theater applications generally require a caster that is quiet and that will not damage the stage floor or painted show deck. Also, choose one rated to support a load greater 102 THE STAGECRAFT HANDBOOK FIGURE 5-10 Two flats joined together using traditional lashing technique stage brace is used to hold a flat in a verti¬ cal position, as illustrated in Figure 5-9 on than the anticipated weight of the scenic page 105. The length of the brace is adjust¬ unit. This will add a margin for error and able. The top of the brace terminates in a ensure smooth operation. pair of metal hooks that engage a stage- brace cleat attached near the top of the flat. Stage Hardware The bottom of the brace terminates in a Traditional stage hardware falls into three curved piece of strap steel through which basic functions: bracing, joining and hang¬ a stage screw is inserted to fasten the brace ing. Stage braces were developed to facili¬ to the deck. tate quick, easy and repetitive changes in A modification of the stage brace has scenery without the use of any tools. A been developed for use in the film and tele-  SCENIC MATERIALS 103 vision industry. Both ends of the brace ter¬ must also be bolted to the flat frame. Figure minate in metal angle brackets. Drywall or 5-12 illustrates two options available for standard screws are used to secure the use as a keeper. Ceiling plates are used brace to the flat and the deck. These modi¬ when the scenic unit’s playing position is fications make for a more secure connec¬ horizontal rather than vertical. tion between the brace and both the flat When the scenic unit is brought into its and the deck, resulting in a more rigid playing position, it must often be secured structure. The length of the brace is fixed, to the deck to eliminate any movement. since standard-height flats are normally Two types of foot irons (illustrated in Fig¬ used in this industry. This brace does not ure 5-13, page 104) can be used for this facilitate quick scenery changes. purpose. A stage screw is used to fasten Lashing hardware was developed to join the foot iron to the deck. traditional flat-construction scenery to¬ gether quickly and easily without the use Wire Rope and Accessories of tools. Lash cleats are alternately Wire rope is a fairly complicated product attached to the stiles of adjoining flats. A that is manufactured for many different and FIGURE 5-11 lash line is secured to the top of one of the very specific applications. Some of the A bottom hanging iron flats and woven around the lash cleats to a most common properties of wire rope that set of tie-off cleats near the bottom of the bear consideration for theatrical applica¬ flats. Stop cleats are installed to properly tions are strength, flexibility, resistance to align the flats. When the hardware is prop¬ rotation and resistance to abrasion. The erly positioned on the flats, an experienced most common wire rope used in the theater stagehand can quickly lash the two flats is 6 X 19 extra-improved plow steel or together with a few flicks of the wrist. Fig¬ 7X19 aircraft cable. The numbers indicate ure 5-10 illustrates two flats joined to¬ the number of strands and wires used to gether by lashing. This lashing technique manufacture the wire rope. Figure 5-14 is rarely used professionally in today’s the¬ (page 104) depicts a cross-section view of ater due to advances in technology and the construction. The most common diam¬ changes in design style. The stage brace eters range from Vii to 'A", though many still serves a limited function, but has been other sizes are available. replaced with other bracing techniques in most professional operations. Theatrical hanging hardware is still very common. This hardware is designed to hang scenic units on an overhead rigging system and to secure these units to the deck when they are in their playing position. The hanging iron illustrated in Figure 5-11 is the standard piece of hardware used to hang a flat. The iron is bolted to the bottom of the flat in line with one of the flat’s stiles, with the ring at the top. The small bend in the iron is positioned under the bot¬ tom rail of the flat. This design lifts the weight of the unit from the bottom, elimi¬ nating tensile stress on the joints of the flat. Always bolt the hanging iron to the fram¬ ing of the flat. A keeper is required to hold FIGURE 5-12 the top of the flat to the cable; this item Two options for a keeper 104 THE STAGECRAFT HANDBOOK damage the wire rope and cause it to fail under loads well below its rated capacity. The thimble will bear no weight, but must be sized for the diameter of the wire rope in use. Cable clips may also be used in wire- rope termination. These clips can be ap¬ plied with commonly available tools; Fig¬ ure 5-16 illustrates their application. A minimum of two clips must be used for wire-rope diameters up to lA". Notice in Figure 5-16 the orientation of the clip around the wire rope. The saddle of the clip must cradle the live end of the wire rope (the live end is the end which supports the load). The U-bolt goes over the portion that has been turned back, also called the dead end. The clip must be sized to match the FIGURE 5-13 diameter of the wire rope and should be Two types of foot irons purchased from a reputable manufacturer who has tested and rated the clips. Cable clips maintain only 80 percent of the wire rope’s strength when they are applied cor¬ rectly and the nuts are tightened to the manufacturer’s recommended torque. Wire rope will stretch when a load is applied, causing a reduction in the diameter of the wire rope. Be sure to retighten the nuts on the cable clips to the recommended torque after the load has been applied. Follow the manufacturer’s specifications for use. Fist grips are similar to wire-rope clips, with one notable advantage. They are man¬ ufactured to provide a saddle for both the live end and the dead end of the wire rope (see Figure 5-17, page 106). With this con¬ struction, you need not be concerned with the orientation of the fist grips to the wire a knot to secure wire rope. When applied rope. correctly, copper nicopress sleeves main¬ Turnbuckles are used to adjust trim or tain 100 percent of the wire rope’s strength. tension within the system in which they These sleeves require a special tool (chap¬ are installed. They are typically used in ter three) to crimp the sleeve around the rigging to fine tune the trim height of a wire rope. Figure 5-15 illustrates the termi¬ piece of flying scenery. The ends of the nation of a wire rope around a pipe batten turnbuckle are supplied with one of four and around a thimble to form an eye. A end fittings, or any combination of these thimble should always be used when form¬ fittings, as illustrated in Figure 5-18, page ing an eye to prevent the wire rope from 106. The jaw or eye end fittings are the bending too sharply: A sharp bend will most useful for theatrical purposes.  SCENIC MATERIALS 105 Pipe Batten Wire Rope Nicopress Sleeve Wire Thimble Rope Nicopress Sleeve Wire Rope Termination Section View With Thimble Wire Rope Termination Around Pipe Batten FIGURE 5-15 Typical wire rope termination using a nicopress sleeve FIGURE 5-16 Wire rope clips and their application 106 THE STAGECRAFT HANDBOOK Purchase only rated turnbuckles of a ca¬ pacity sufficient to meet your needs. A safety measure must be taken when using turnbuckles to prevent them from loosening and ultimately coming apart while in use. They can be equipped with lock nuts or jam nuts tightened against the body of the turnbuckle as one solution. A cotter pin may also be inserted through the threaded rod at a point within the body of the turnbuckle. Shackles are used as a method of provid¬ ing a safe link between various rigging components. There are two basic types of shackles, as illustrated in Figure 5-19. The anchor shackle is the most common type used in theatrical rigging. Shackles are available with a screw pin, round pin or bolt to close the open end. Shackles are designed for maximum strength when the load is applied in line, as illustrated by the arrows in Figure 5-19. A reduction of up to 50 percent in the safe working load oc¬ curs as the load moves away from the in¬ line axis. As with all other components of a rigging system, these items should be sized and rated for the expected load. Links and rings are useful when bring¬ ing several components together at one junction. They are available in three basic shapes (as illustrated in Figure 5-20) and a variety of sizes. The manufacturer’s FIGURE 5-18 working-load limits should be observed at Turnbuckle end fittings all times when working with these items. Chapter seven will illustrate the meth¬ ods and procedures for hanging scenery and the application of much of this hard¬ ware to accomplish this task easily and safely. FIBER ROPE Fiber rope is manufactured from organic or synthetic fibers. The standard for many years has been manila rope, an organic ma¬ terial derived from the abaca plant. Its set of characteristics has made it the most de¬ sirable organic fiber rope for rigging use. manila rope is commonly used as the hand line in counterweight rigging sys-  SCENIC MATERIALS 107 FIGURE 5-19 Two types of shackles In Line In Line i i (vt) fr J in Anchor Shackle Chain Shackle with screw pin with bolt terns. Figure 5-21, page 108, indicates the breaking strength and safe working load for popular sizes of manila rope. Another common and useful organic fiber rope is cotton sash cord. This rope has many light- duty uses in the theater, but is not intended for overhead rigging applications. A wide variety of synthetic fiber ropes have been developed in recent years, and some of them are finding their way into the theater. They have many advantages over organic fiber ropes, including better strength-to-weight ratios, absorption of lit¬ tle or no moisture and a superior ability to a variety of core and outer sheathing com- FIGURE 5'20 Lmks and nn8s absorb shock loads, and are resistant to rot binations that greatly improve the handling and mildew. Some synthetics are to be characteristics and strength of the rope. avoided because of unacceptable elonga¬ The breaking strength and safe working tion and texture characteristics. These un¬ loads of some synthetic fiber ropes are desirable characteristics were common listed in Figure 5-22 on page 108. among synthetic fiber ropes when they were first introduced. The problem has since been addressed with some very good results. While manila rope is most commonly constructed of yarns twisted into strands that are, in turn, twisted into the rope, the most interesting and successful synthetic- fiber ropes are braided or manufactured in 108 THE STAGECRAFT HANDBOOK FIGURE 5-21 Safe working loads for Safety Factor Rope Breaking manila rope 5 8 10 Diameter Strength 1/4” 540 lbs. 108 lbs. 68 lbs. 54 lbs. 3/8” 1220 lbs. 244 lbs. 153 lbs. 120 lbs. 1/2” 2380 lbs. 476 lbs. 298 lbs. 238 lbs. 5/8” 3960 lbs. 792 lbs. 495 lbs. 396 lbs. 3/4" 4960 lbs. 992 lbs. 620 lbs. 496 lbs. 7/8" 6950 lbs. 1390 lbs. 869 lbs. 695 lbs. 1" 8100 lbs. 1620 lbs. 1013 lbs. 810 lbs. 1 1/8" 10800 lbs. 2160 lbs. 1350 lbs. 1080 lbs. 1 1/4" 12200 lbs. 2440 lbs. 1525 lbs. 1220 lbs. Safety Factor Rope Breaking Type Of Fiber 5 8 10 Diameter Strength 1/4" Sta-Set (polyester) 2000 lbs. 400 lbs. 250 lbs. 200 lbs. Polypropylene (twisted) 1130 lbs. 226 lbs. 141 lbs. 113 lbs. Nylon (twisted) 1490 lbs. 298 lbs. 186 lbs. 149 lbs. 1/2" Sta-Set (polyester) 8000 lbs. 1600 lbs. 1000 lbs. 800 lbs. Polypropylene (twisted) 3600 lbs. 720 lbs. 450 lbs. 360 lbs. Nylon (twisted) 5750 lbs. 1150 lbs. 719 lbs. 575 lbs. 3/4" Sta-Set (polyester) 15000 lbs. 3000 lbs. 1875 lbs. 1500 lbs. Polypropylene (twisted) 7600 lbs. 1520 lbs. 950 lbs. 760 lbs. Nylon (twisted) 12800 lbs. 2560 lbs. 1600 lbs. 1280 lbs. 1" Sta-Set (polyester) 24600 lbs. 4920 lbs. 3075 lbs. 2460 lbs. Polypropylene (twisted) 12500 lbs. 2500 lbs. 1562 lbs. 1250 lbs. Nylon (twisted) 22600 lbs. 4520 lbs. 2825 lbs. 2260 lbs. FIGURE 5-22 Safe working loads for synthetic ropes