Comprehensive Reviewer PDF

4 5   Organ System – group of CHEMISTRY organs classified as a unit with a common set of functions Study of the structures of the Organism...

4 5   Organ System – group of CHEMISTRY organs classified as a unit with a common set of functions Study of the structures of the Organism Level body  Organism – any living thing Anatomy; to dissect, or cut apart, considered as a whole or separate Approaches to the Study of Anatomy CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE 1. Systemic Anatomy – study of the body by organ system Organization – interrelationship among the parts of an organism and how those parts interact to perform specific functions 2. Regional Anatomy – study of Metabolism – ability to use energy to the body by areas perform vital functions Two General Ways to Study the Internal Responsiveness – ability to sense Structure of a Living Person changes in the environment and make the adjustments 1. Surface Anatomy – study of external features; superficial Growth – increase in size structures to locate deeper structures Development – changes an organism undergoes through time 2. Anatomical Imaging – non- invasive method for examining Reproduction–formation of new deep structures; x-ray, CT scan, cells/organisms PET scan, MRI PHYSIOLOGY HOMEOSTASIS Physiology Ability to maintain relatively Study of the processes and stable internal conditions functions of the body Main goals; to understand Homeo: same; stasis: standing and predict; to understand how still the body maintains conditions Balance / Equilibirum STRUCTURAL AND Homeostatic mechanisms – normally maintain body temp near an ideal FUNCTIONAL normal value; sweating, shivering ORGANIZATION Variables – conditions that can change Chemical Level Set point – ideal value  How atoms interact and combine Normal range – acceptable range of into molecules values on which HM can still be met Cell Level Homeostatic Control Mechanisms  Cell – basic structural and functional unit of organisms 1. Negative-feedback Mechanism Tissue Level Regulates most systems of the  Tissue – group of similar cells body to maintain homeostasis Negative; any deviation from Organ Level the set point is resisted  Organ – composed of two or more tissue types that perform 2. Positive-feedback Mechanism common functions Not homeostatic and is rare in a healthy individual Organ System Level  Positive; when a value deviates from normal, the system’s Deep internal response is to make it greater Massive blood loss, child birth Body Parts and Regions Components to Maintain Homeostasis a. Receptors- monitors the value of a variable, such as body Head cephalic temperature, by detecting stimuli b. Control center – analyzes Forehead frontal information and determines the appropriate response Eye orbital c. Effector – provides the meant o control the value of a variable Nose nasal TERMINOLOGY AND BODY Mouth oral PLANE Ear ottic Body Positions  Anatomical Position – a person Cheek buccal standing erect with the face directed forward, the upper limbs hanging to Chin mental the sides, and the palms of the hands facing forward Neck cervical Supine – lying face upward Prone – lying face downward TRUNK Directional Terms Thoracic thorax TERMS MEANING Chest pectoral Inferior lower Breastbone sternal Superior higher Breast mammary Anterior front Abdomen abdominal Posterior back Navel umbilical Ventral belly Pelvis pelvic Dorsal back Groin inguinal Proximal nearest Genital pubic Distal distant UPPER LIMBS Lateral away from the midline Collarbone clavicular Medial towards the Armpit axillary midline Arm brachial Superficial toward or on surface Front of Elbow antecubital  Forearm antebrachial Perineum perineal Hand manual LOWER LIMB Wrist carpal Hollow Behind popliteal Palm palmar Knee Fingers digital Calf sural Sole plantar LOWER LIMB Heel calcaneal Hip coxal Subdivisions of the Abdomen Thigh femoral Kneecap patellar Leg crural Foot pedal Ankle talus Top of Foot dorsum Toes digital HEAD Skull cranial Base of Skull occipital Base Neck nuchal TRUNK Back dorsal Shoulder Blade scapular Spinal Column vertebral Lumbar loin Between Hips sacral Buttock gluteal  BODY CAVITIES Body Cavities  Thoracic cavity – bounded by ribs and the diaphragm Mediastinum – partition containing the heart, thymus, trachea, esophagus  Abdominal cavity – bounded by the diaphragm and the abdominal mucles  Pelvic Cavity – surrounded by the pelvic bones  Pericardial cavity – surrounds the heart  Pleural cavity – surrounds the lungs  Peritoneal cavity – surrounds certain abdominal and pelvic organs Serous Membranes  Line the trunk cavities and cover the organs  Visceral Serous Membrane – covers the internal organs  Parietal Serous Membrane – lines the wall of the cavity  Mesenteries – hold the abdominal organs in place and provide a passageway for blood vessels and nerves to organs  Pericarditis – inflammation of the pericardium  Pleurisy – inflammation of the pleura  Peritonitis – inflammation of the peritoneum 10  MATTER, MASS, and ELECTRONICS AND WEIGHT CHEMICAL BONDING Matter- anything that occupy space and  Chemical Bonding- electrons are mass. transferred or shared between atoms. Mass- amount of matter in an object.  Ionic Bonding- electrons are Weight- gravitational force acting in an transferred. object  Covalennt Bond- electrons are shared.  Polar Covalent Bond- unequal, ANATOMIC STRUCTURE asymmetrical sharing of electrons.  Polar Molecules- molecules with  Neutrons – no electrical asymmetrical electrical charge. Charge  Nonpolar Covalent Bond- equal  Protons – positive charges sharing of electrons between atoms.  Electrons – negative charges  Nonpolar Molecules- molecules  Nucleus – formed by protons with symmetrical electrical charge and neutrons  Hydrogen Bonds- weak attraction  Electron cloud – where between the oppositely charged electrons are most likely to be regions of polar molecules. found  Atomic number – no of protons in each atom MOLECULES & COMPUND  Mass number – no. of protons + no. of neutrons Molecules- two or more atoms that are chemically combined. CHEMISTRY Compund- two or more different types Chemistry – concerned with atomic of atoms that are chemically combined. composition and structure of substances DISSOCIATION and the reactions they undergo Separation of ions in an ionic compound by polar molecules ELEMENTS AND ATOMS  Electrolytes- dissociated ions Elements – simplest type of matter having unique properties. Atoms – smallest particle of an element. CHEMICAL REACTIONS Substances interact either to form or to break chemical bonds  Reactants- substances that enters int chemical reaction  Products- substancces that result from chemical reaction ACID & BASE CLASSIFICATION OF  Acid- proton donor  Base- proton acceptor CHEMICAL REACTIONS a) Synthesis- combination of reactants to PH SCALE form larger products b) Decomposition- breakdown of larger  Indicates the H+ concentration of a reactants to form smaller products solution c) Exchange- combination of  Neutral- equal no. of H+ and OH-; pH decomposition and synthesis of 7.0  Acidic- pH less than 7.0  Anabolism- synthesis reaction that  Basic- pH greater than 7.0 occur in the body  7.35 - 7.45- normal pH range of blood  Catabolism- decomposition reaction  Acidosis- blood pH drops below 7.35 that occur in the body  Alkalosis- blood pH rises above 7.45  Metabolism- combination of anabolism and catabolism reaction in the body.  Reversible Reactants- reactants can form products and products can form reactants ENERGY & CHEMICAL REACTION INORGANIC MOLECULE  Energy- capacity to do work  Do not contain carbon  Potential Energy- stored energy  Oxygen- involved with extraction of  Kinetic Energy- energy caused by energy from food molecules movements  Carbon Dioxide- by-product of the  Chemical Energy- form of potential breakdown of food molecules energy stored in chemical bonds  Water (H2O) is an organic molecule  Rate of Chemical Reaction (RCTC) that consists of one atom of oxygen Reactants joined by polar covalent bonds to two Concentration atoms of hydrogen. Temperature  Water (H2O) has many important Catalysts (increases the rate of roles in humans and all living chmical reaction without itself organisms: being permanently changed or Stabilizing body temperature depleted Protecting; Lubricant/Cushion  Facilitating chemical reactions Trans fats – unsaturated fats tha Transporting substances have been altered by addition of H atoms Phospholipids–phosphorus ORGANIC MOLECULE containing molecues Hydrophilic– water loving; polar  Carbohydrates- composed of carbon, end ofmolecules are attracted to hydrogen, and oxygen atoms. In most water carbohydrates, for each carbon atom Hydrophobic –water fearing; non there are two hydrogen atoms and one polar end is repelled by water oxygen atom. Note that this two-to-one Eicosanoids– important ratio is the same as in water (H2O). chemicals derived form fatty acids; The molecules are called important regulatory molecules carbohydrates because each carbon Prostaglandins – regulates (carbo-) is combined with the same secretion of hormones, blood atoms that form water (hydrated). For clotting, and some reproductive example, the chemical formula for functions glucose is C6H12O6. Steroids – carbon atoms in four Monosaccharides- smallest ring-like structures carbohydrates; simple sugars Cholesterol – important steroid  Glucose- blood sugar because steroid molecules are  Fructose- fruit sugar synthesized from it; important Disaccharides- two component ofcell membranes monosaccharides  Protein- contain carbon, hydrogen,  Sucrose- table sugar oxygen, and nitrogen, and most have Polysaccharides- many some sulfur monosaccharides Regulate chemical reactions  Glycogen- animal starch Serve as structural components  Plant Starch Cause muscle contraction  Cellulose The building blocks of proteins are  Lipids are substances that dissolve in amino acids, which are organic nonpolar solvents, such as alcohol or acids containing an amine group acetone, but not in polar solvents, such (–NH2) and a carboxyl group. as water. Lipids are composed mainly There are 20 basic types of amino of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, but acids. Humans can synthesize 12 other elements, such as phosphorus of them from simple organic and nitrogen, are minor components of molecules, but the remaining 8 so- some lipids. Lipids contain a lower called essential amino acids must proportion ofoxygen to carbon than do be obtained in the diet carbohydrates. Amino acids – building blocks of Fats– important energy-storage proteins; amine group + carboxyl molecules; pad and insulate the group; 20 basic types: 12 simple body org. molecules + 8 obtained in diet Glycerol & Fatty Acids –building Denaturation – change in shape blocks offats caused by abnormally high temp. Triglycerides –most common or change in pH type offat molecules Enzymes –protein catalysts; lower Saturated Fatty Acid – single the activation energy covalent bond; beef, pork, whole Activation energy – energy needed milk,cheese, butter, eggs, coconut to start a chem rxn oil, palm oil Lock-and-key model –the shapes Unsaturated Fatty Acid – one of an enzyme and those ofthe ofmore double covalent bonds reactant allow the enzymes to bind Mono-unsaturated fats – double easily to the reactants. covalent bonds bet. carbon; olive and peanut oil Polyunsaturated fats – two or more double covalent bonds; safflower, sunflower, corn, fish oils  Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA The basic unit of nucleic acids is the nucleotide, which is a monosaccharide with an attached phosphate and organic base. DNA nucleotides contain the monosaccharide deoxyribose and the organic bases adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine. DNA occurs as a double strand of joined nucleotides and is the genetic material of cells. RNA nucleotides are composed of the monosaccharide ribose. The organic bases are the same as for DNA, except that thymine is replaced with uracil. Adenosine Triphosphate ATP stores energy, which can be used in cell processes. 15  CELL STRUCTURE The Cell is the basic unit of living organism  Cell The simplest organisms consist of single cells, whereas humans are composed of multiple cells. An average-sized cell is one-fifth the size of the smallest dot you can make on a sheet of paper with a sharp pencil! Cell was discovered in late 1600’ s The outermost component of a cell by Robert Hooke through dead A fragile transparent barrier that plant. contains cell contents and Cells was named after the long separates them from the rows of monk’ s rooms (or cells) at surrounding environment. the monastery. Extracellular Substances Three main parts:  Substances outside the cell  Plasma Membrane  Na= and Cl- are found in  Cytoplasm greater concentrations an  Nucleus extrcellulary Intracellular Substances  Substances inside the cell  Substances such as glycogen and potassium ionns (K+) are found at higher concentrations intracellulary. Functions:  Cell Metabolism and Energy Use  Synthesis of Molecules  Communication Nucleus  Reproduction and The headquarter or the control Inheritance center of the cell. A large organelle that houses most of the cell’s deoxyribonucleic acid MAIN PARTS OF CELL (DNA). The site of ribosome formation Plasma Membrane Also known as Cell Membrane A double layer of phospolipid molecules.  Nuclear Envelope Site of aerobic respiration (the  A double semipermeable burning of glucose) membrane barrier. Site for ATP synthesis  Allows some but not all substances to pass through it. Nuclear Pore  Opening that is made up of fused nuclear membrane Nucleolus  One or more small, dark staining, essentially round bodies called nucleoli.  Site where cell structures called ribosomes are assembled. Ribosomes  The nuclei of human contain Dense particles consisting of two 23 pairs of chromosomes. subunits, each composed of Chromatin ribosomal DNA and protein  Tangled spread out form of The site for protein synthesis DNA inside nuclear Found at two locations: membrane.  Free in the Cytoplasm  Threads coils and condense  Attached to rough to form dense, rod-like bodies endoplasmic reticulum called chromosomes during cell division Rough ER Membranous network of flattened Cytoplasm sacs or tubules The cellular material outside the Externally studded with ribosomes nucleus and inside the plasma Site where building materials of membrane. cellular membrane are formed Gel-lie fluid inside the cell. Site of protein synthesis Two major components:  Cytosol  Also known as intracellular fluid.  The fluid portion of cytoplasm surrounding the organelles  Constitutes about 55% of total cell volume  75% - 90% water plus various dissolvved and suspended components  Organelles  Also known as little organs  Specialized structures within the cell that have characteristics and shape, and perform Smooth ER specific functions. Membranous system of tunnels and sacs ORGANELLES Free of ribosomes Functions:  Lipid Synthesis Mitochondria  Fat Metabolism Rod-like, double membrane  Detoxification of chemicals structures within cells The powerhouse of the cell Inner membrane fold into Vesicle projection called cristae.  Fluid-filled sacs inside the cell, digest subcellular material, transport material out of the cell and carry on enzymatic activities. Vesicles protect the integrity of the plasma membrane. Secretory vesicles pinch off from the Golgi apparatus and move to the cell membrane The membrane of a secretory vesicle then fuses with the cell membrane, and the contents of the vesicle are released to the exterior of the cell. Peroxisome Small, membrane-bound vesicles containing enzymes that break down fatty acids The enzymes in peroxisome break Lysosomes down hydrogen peroxide to water Membranous sacs containing acid and O2 hydrolases (powerful digestive Cells active in detoxification, such enzymes) as liver and kidney cells, have Vesicle form from golgi complex many peroxisomes. Site of intracellular digestion Stomach of the cell Cilia, Flagellla, and Microvilli Responsible for autolysis of Cilia injured cells  Project ffrom the surface of the cells  Vary in numbr from none to thousands peer cell  Capable of moving  Cylindrical structures that extend from the cell  Composed of microtubules Flagella  Similar structure to cilia but are much longer Centrioles  Only occur one per cell Paired cylindrical bodies, each  Sperm cells has one flagellum composed of nine triplets of Microvilli microtubules.  Specialized extension of the Also known as centrosome cell membrane that are A specialized zone of cytoplasm supported by microfilaments close to the nucleus, where  Do not move as cilia and microtubule formation occurs. flagella do. Known for directing the information of the chromosomes during cell Golgi Apparatus division. A stack of flattened mebranes and associated vesicles close to the ER Packages, modifies, and segregates protein for protein secretion from the cell. Forms new cell membranes components Packages lysosomes Microfilaments, Intermediate Filaments,  The interval between the and Microtubules mitotic and the S phase. Microfilaments  Lasts 8-10 hours  Small fibrils formed from  Cell is metabolically protein subunits that active structurally support the  S Phase cytoplasm.  Interval between G1 and  Most involved in cell motility G2 and in producing changes in  Last about 8 hours cell shape  DNA replication occurs Intermediate Filaments  Smaller in diameter than microtubules but larger in diameter than microfilaments.  G2  Strong, stable, rope-like made  The interval up of fibrous subunits. between the S Provides mechanical support phase and the to the cell. mitotic phase Microtubules  Lasts 4-6 hours  Made up of repeating sub-  Cell growth units of protein tubulin. continues  Determines the overall shape  Enzymes and other of a cell and the distribution of proteins are organelles. synthesized in preparation of cell Cytoskeleton division Acts as a cell's "bones and  Replication of muscles" centrosomes is Determines cell shapes, supports completed. organelles  DNA replicates during interphase, the Provides the machinery for nondividing phase of the cell cycle. intracellular transport and various  Cell division occurs through mitosis, types ofcellular movements. which is divided into four stages: Prophase—each chromosome consists of two chromatids joined at the centromere. Metaphase—chromosomes align at the center of the cell. Anaphase—chromatids separate at the centromere and migrate to opposite poles. Telophase—the two new nuclei assume their normal structure, and cell division is completed, producing two new daughter cells. CELL CYCLE DIFFERENTIATION  The cell cycle consists of a series of Differentiation events that produce new cells for The process by which cells develop growth and for tissue repair. specialized structures and functions, results  The two phases of the cell cycle are from the selective activation and inactivation interphase and cell division. of DNA sections.  Interphase (Metabolic) cell grows and carries on its usual metabolic activities. The longer phase of the cell cycle Consists of three phases:  G1  APOPTOSIS Apoptosis The programmed death of cells. Apoptosis regulates the number of cells within various tissues of the body. CELLULAR ASPECTS OF AGING Aging may be due to the presence of “cellular clocks,” the function of “death genes,” DNA damage, free radicals, or mitochondrial damage.  Cellular Clocks- after a certain passage of time or a certain number of cell divisions, results in the death of a given cell line.  Death Genes- turn on late in life, orsometimes prematurely, causing cells to deteriorate and die.  DNA Damage- through time, DNA is damaged, resulting in cell degeneration and death.  Free Radicals- One of the major sources of DNA damage is apparently free radicals, which are atoms or molecules with an unpaired electron.  Mitochondrial Damage- may result in loss of proteins critical to mitochondrial function. loss of mitochondrial function could lead to the loss of energy critical to cell function and, ultimately, to cell death. 21  TISSUES 2. Cuboidal (cubelike) cells- are cube- shaped—about as wide as they are tall. Tissues are groups of cells that are similar a) Simple cubiodal epithelium- in structure and function. They usually have single layer of cube-like cells that a common origin in an embryo and function carry out active transport, together to carry out specialized activities. facilitated diffusion, or secretion. The structure of each tissue type is related b) Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium- to its function, and the structure of the consists of more than one layer of tissues in an organ is related to the organ ' s cube-like cells. function 3. Columnar (tall and thin, similar to a TYPES OF TISSUES column) - cells tend to be taller than they are wide. Epithelial Tissue a) Simple Columnar Epithelium-  it cover external and internal surfaces single layer of tall, thin cells. The throughout the body. It also forms most large size of these cells enables glands. them to perform complex functions.  Functions include protecting underlying b) Stratified Columnar Epithelium- structures, act as a barrier, permit the consists of more than one layer of passage of substances, secrete column-like cells substances, and absorb substances. c) Pseudo Stratified Columnar  The basement membrane is composed Epithelium- secretes mucus, of a mixture of proteins and which covers its free surface. carbohydrates that function as a filter and as a barrier to the movement of the SIMPLE EPITHELIUM cells. Simple Squamous Epithelium  Structure: single layer of flat, often hexagonal cells; the nuclei appear as bumps when viewed in cross section because the cells are so flat  Function: diffusion, filtration, some secretion, and some protection against friction  Location: lining of blood vessels and the heart, lymphatic vessels, alveoli of the lungs, portions of the kidney tubules, lining of serous membranes of body cavities (pleural, pericardial,  Classification of Epithelia peritoneal) Simple epithelium has one layer of cells, whereas stratified epithelium has more than one. Pseudostratified columnar epithelium is simple epithelium that appears to have two or more cell layers. Transitional epithelium is stratified epithelium that can be greatly stretched  There are three types of epithelium based on idealized shapes of the epithelial cells: Simple Cuboidal Epithelium 1. Squamous cells- are flat or scalelike.  Structure: single layer of cube-shaped a) Simple Squamous Epithelium - cells; some cells have microvilli (kidney single layer of thin, fat cells. tubules) or cilia (terminal bronchioles of b) Stratified Squamous Epithelium- the lungs) consists of severral layers of flat  Function: secretion and absorption by cells cells of the kidney tubules; secretion by  cells of glands and choroid plexuses; Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium movement of particles embedded in  Structure: Single layer of cells; some mucus out of the terminal bronchioles cells are tall and thin and reach the free by ciliated cells. surface, and others do not; the nuclei of  Location: kidney tubules, glands, and these cells are at different levels and their ducts, choroid plexuses of the appear stratified; the cells are almost brain, lining of terminal bronchioles of always ciliated and are associated with the lungs, and surfaces of the ovaries goblet cells that secrete mucus onto the free surface  Function: synthesize and secrete mucus onto the free surface and move mucus (or fluid) that contains foreign particles over the surface of the free surface and from passages  Location: lining of nasal cavity, nasal sinuses, auditory tubes, pharynx, trachea, and bronchi of lungs. Simple Columnar Epithelium  Structure: single layer of tall, narrow cells; some cells have cilia (bronchioles of the lungs, auditory tubes, uterine tubees, and uterus) or microvilli (intestines).  Function: movement of particles out of the bronchioles of the lungs by ciliated cells; partially responsible for the movement of oocytes through the uterine tubes by ciliated cells; secretion by cells of the glands, the stomach, and the intestines; absorption by cells of the intestines  Location: glands and some ducts, bronchioles of lungs, auditory tubes, STRATIFIED uterus, uterine tubes, stomach, intestines, gallbladder, bile ducts, and EPITHELIUM ventricles off the brain. Stratified Squamous Epithelium  Structure: several layers of cells that are cuboidal in the basal layer and progressively flattened toward the surface.  Function: protect against aabrasion, forms a barrier against infection, and reduces loss of water from the body.  Location:keratinized—outer layer of the skin; nonkeratinized—mouth, throat, larynx, esophagus, anus, vagina, inferior urethra, and corneas   A smooth, free surface reduces friction. Microvilli increase surface area, and cilia move materials over the cell surface.  Tight junctions bind adjacent cells together and form a permeability barrier.  Desmosomes mechanically bind cells together, and hemidesmosomes mechanically bind cells to the basement membrane.  Gap junctions allow intercellular communication. Transitional Epithelium  Structure: stratified cells that appear cuboidal when the organ or tube is not stretched and squamous when the organ or tube is stretched by fluid  Function: accommodates fluctuations in the volume of fluid in an organ or a tube; protects against the caustic effects of urine  Location: lining of urinary bladder, ureters, and superior urethra GLANDS Glands are secretory organs; composed primarily of epitheium, with a supporting network of connective tissue  Exocrine Glands- glands with ducts; both the glands and their ducts are lined with epithelium. Unicellular Multicellular  Simple – non branched  Compound - branched STRUCTURAL AND  Tubular FUNCTIONAL Straight Coiled RELATIONSHIPS  Acinus (grapelike) or Alveolus (small cavity)  Simple epithelium is involved Mode of Secretion with diffusion, secretion, or  Merocrine – products are absorption. Stratified released but no actual cellular epithelium serves a protective material is lost; pancreas role.  Apocrine – secretory products are released as fragments;  Squamous cells function in mammary glands diffusion or filtration. Cuboidal  Holocrine - shedding of entire or columnar cells, which contain cells; sebaceous glands more organelles, secrete or absorb.  Endocrine Glands- glands with no  Proteoglycans – pinetrees: ducts; separated from the epithelium of branches = proteins, pine their origin needles = polysaccharides; Hormone- cellular products of trap large quantities of water endocrine glands Fluid CONNECTIVE TISSUE CELLS OF Connective Tissue is a diverse primary CONNECTIVE TISSUE tissue type that makes up part of every Adult Connective Tissue organ in the body.  Function: I. Connective Tissue Proper Enclosing and separating other  1. Loose Connective Tissue- few tissues protein fibers,numerous spaces Conecting tissues to one another a. Areolar – EM: collagen Supporting and moving parts of fibers and few elastic fibers the body b. Adipose – consists of Storing compunds adipocytes (fat cells): contain Cushioning and Insulating large amounts of lipid (for Transporting energy storage); EM: loose Protection arranged collagen and reticular fibers, scattered elastic fibers CELLS OF c. Reticular CONNECTIVE TISSUE  2. Dense Connective Tissue- large amount of protein fibers Blast- create the matrix a. Collagenous – EM:collagen Cytes- maintain matrix fibers Clasts- break matrix for b. Elastic – abundant elastic remodeling fibers (stretch Osteoblast- form bone II. Supporting Connective Tissue Osteocytes- maintain bone  1. Cartilage- composed of Osteoclasts- break the bone down chondrocytes, in spaces called lacunae; flexibility and strength; Fibroblasts- cells that form fibrous provides support connective tissue a. Hyaline – most abundant, Fibrocytes- maintain fibrous covers the ends of bones, can connective tissue withstand repeated compressions Chrondoblasts- form cartilage b. Fibro – more collagen, able to Chondrocytes- maintain cartilage resists pulling or tearing, found in disks between vertebrae and some joints EXTRACELLULAR (knee and jaw) c. Elastic – contains elastic MATRIX fibers, able to recoil to its original, external ear, epiglottis, Extracellular Matrix auditory tube Protein Fibers  2. Bone- hard connective tissue;  Collagen Fibers – microscopic consists of living cells, mineralized ropes; flexible but resist matrix; osteocytes (bone cells), stretching are located within lacunae; support  Reticular Fibers – fine, short and protect other organs that branch; support network a. Spongy  Elastic Fibers – coiled; can b. Compact recoil back to shape Ground Substance –shapeless III. Fluid Connective Tissue background where cells and a. Blood – liquid matrix: collagen fibers can be seen; highly enables blood to flow rapidly; structured molecules  carry nutrients, oxygen, waste products  RBCs MEMBRANES  WBCs Membranes  Platelets  A thin layer of tissue that covers a b. Hemopoietic - forms bloods structure cells  Mostly consists of epithelium and connective tissue MUSCLE TISSUE I. Mucous Membrances Muscle Tissue has the ability to contract.  Consists of epithelium and loose Muscle fibers – resemble tiny threads connective tissue  Line the digestive, respiratory, Types of Muscular Tissue reproductive tracts I. Skeletal (striated voluntary)  Protection, absorption, secretion Large, long, cylindrical cells Multinucleated II. Serous Membranes Attached to bones  Simple squamous epithelium and loose Responsible for body movement connective tissue  Line the trunk cavities and cover the II. Cardiac (striated involuntary) organs within it Cylindrical cells  Serous fluid prevents damage from Branched and connected to one abrasion another by intercalated disks a. Pleural – lungs Single nucleated b. Pericardial – heart Found in the heart c. Peritoneal – abdominopelvic Pumps the blood cavity III. Synovial Membranes III. Smooth (nonstriated involuntary)  Formed by connective tissue End tapered cells  Line the inside of joint cavities Single nucleated  Synovial fluid – reduce friction to allow Found in hollow organs: stomach, smooth movement within the joints intestine; skin, eyes Regulates size of organs, forces fluid TISSUE DAMAGE AND through tubes, controls the amount of light entering the eye, produces ‘goose INFLAMMATION bumps’  Inflammation – occurs when tissues are damaged NERVOUS TISSUE  Histamine & Prostaglandins – chemical mediators of inflammation Nervous Tissue  Edema - swelling  Found in the brain, spinal cord, and  Neutrophil – phagocytic WBC that nerves fights infection  Responsible for coordinating and  Pus – mixture of dead neutrophils, controlling other cells, fluid  Action potentials – ability of nervous tissue cells to communicate with one another by means of electric signals CHRONIC  Neurons – responsible for conducting action potentials INFLAMMATION Cell Body – contains the nucleus;  Results when the agent causing injury site of general cell functions is not removed or something else Dendrites – receive electric interferes with the healing process impulses Axon – conduct electric impulses  TISSUE REPAIR  Substitution of viable cells for dead cells  Can occur by regeneration or by fibrosis  Regeneration – new cells are the same type as those that were destroyed  Fibrosis/Replacement – a new type of tissue develops that eventually causes scar production  Stem Cells – self-renewing, undifferentiated cells that continue to divide throughout life  Clot – contains protein fibrin (binds the edges of a wound together and stops the bleeding)  Scab – dried surface of a clot; seals the wound and helps prevent infection  Granulation Tissue – delicate, granular appearing connective tissue that consists of fibroblasts, collagen, capillaries EFFECTS OF AGING ON TISSUE  Cells divide more slowly.  Injuries heal more slowly.  EM containing collagen & elastic fibers becomes less flexible and less elastic.  Skin wrinkles.  Elasticity in blood arteries is reduced.  Bones break more easily. 28  Dermis INTEGUMENTARY  Dense collagenous connective tissue, contains fibroblasts, adipocytes, SYSTEM macrophages  Nerves, hair follicles, smooth muscles, Integumentary System is consists of the glands, lymphatic vessels skin, and accessory structures such as hair,  Collagen (resist stretching) & elastic glands, and nails. fibers – structural strength  Cleavage lines/Tension lines – collagen  Functions of the Integumentary System fibers are oriented in some directions; 1. Protection skin is most resistant to stretch along 2. Sensation these lines 3. Vitamin D production  Stretch marks – skin is overstretched, 4. Temperature regulation leaving lines that are visible 5. Excretion  Dermal papillae – contain blood vessels that supply the epidermis with SKIN nutrients, remove waste products, and regulate body temperature Epidermis  Most superficial layer Skin Color  Stratified squamous epithelium  Melanin – pigments responsible for skin,  In deepest layers, mitosis occurs hair, eye color  Keratinization – cells change shape  Melanin pigments – yellow (Caucasian), and chemical composition; cells brown (Asians), black (African) become filed with the protein keratin  Melanocytes – produce melanin; (hard); transformation of the living cells irregularly shaped cells; s. basale of the stratum basale into the dead  Melanosomes – vesicles derived from squamous cells of the stratum corneum GA where melanin is produced  Callus – thickened area  Factors of Melanin Production  Corn – bony prominence, thickened a. Genetic factors corn shaped structure b. Exposure to UV light  Layers of the Epidermis: c. Hormones Stratum Corneum- most superficial  Albinism - recessive genetic trait that stratum; dead squamous cells causes deficiency / absence of melanin filled with keratin (structural  Cyanosis - bluish skin color; decreased strength); lipids (prevent fluid loss); blood O2 joined by desmosomes  Carotene – yellow pigment in plants Stratum Lucidum- thick, hairless (squash, carrots); source of vitamin A skin only  Birthmarks – congenital disorder of the Stratum Granulosum capillaries in the dermis Stratum Spinosum Stratum Basale- deepest; cuboidal Subcutaneous Tissue & columnar cells, undergo mitosis  Attaches the skin to underlying bones every 19 days  Also called the hypodermis  Loose connective tissue  Storage of our body’s fat (padding, insulation) ACCESORY SKIN STRUCTURE Hair  Columns of dead, keratinized epithelial cells  Produced in the hair bulb Hair follicle – where each hair rises Shaft – above the skin Root – below the skin  Hair bulb – site of hair cell b. Apocrine Sweat Glands formation  Simple, coiled, tubular glands Cortex – hard keratin  Produce a think secretion rich in Medulla – soft central core organic substances Cuticle – single layer of  Released primary by melocrine overlapping cells that holds the secretion; some glands demonstrate hair in the hair follicle holocrine secretion  Growth Stage  Open into hair follicles, in armpits and Hair is formed by epithelial cells genitalia within the hair bulb  Become active at puberty Divide and undergo keratinization Hair root + shaft = columns of III. Other Glands dead keratinized epithelial cells a. Ceruminous glands – cerumen (earwax)  Resting Stage b. Mammary glands – milk Growth stops Hair is held in the hair follicle Nails  Next growth stage  Dead stratum corneum cells A new hair is formed  Contain a very hard type of keratin The old hair falls out  Nail body – visible part of the nail  Eyelashes – grow for about 30 days;  Nail root – part of the nail covered by rest for 105 days skin  Scalp hairs – grow for 3 years; rest for  Cuticle – eponychium; s. corneum that 1 – 2 years extends onto the nail body  Arrector Pili – smooth muscles;  Nail matrix – produces the nail contraction = hair to stand on end;  Nail bed – contributes to nail formation produces goose bumps  Lunula – white, crescent-shaped area; part of the nail matrix visible through. the nail body PHYSIOLOGY OF INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM 1. Protection  Reducing water loss  Prevents microorganisms from entering the body  Protects underlying structures against abrasion  Hair on head- insulator  Eyebrows- keep sweat out of the eyes  Eyelashes = protects the eyes from Glands foreign objects I. Sebaceous Glands  Hair in the nose, ears = prevents the  Simple, branched acinar glands entry of dust  Connected by a duct to the superficial  Nails = protect the ends of the fingers, part of the hair follicle toes from damage; can be used in  Sebum – oily, white substance rich in defense lipids; released by holocrine secretion; lubricates the hair/surface of the skin 2. Sensation (prevents drying and protects against  Sensory receptors for pain, touch, hot, bacteria) cold, pressure II. Sweat Glands 3. Vitamin D Production a. Eccrine Sweat Glands  Skin exposed to UV light produces  Simple, coiled, tubular glands cholecalciferol (modified in the liver,  Release sweat by melocrine secretion then in the kidneys to produce active  Numerous in the palms and soles vitamin D)  Best sources of Vit. D = fatty fish, Vit. D fortified milk  Small amounts of Vit D = eggs, butter, BURN liver  Active Vit. D stimulates the small Burn – injury to a tissue caused by heat, intestine to absorb calcium and cold, friction, chemicals, electricity, and phosphate (normal bone growth, radiation normal muscle function)  I. Partial-thickness Burns 4. Temperature Regulation S. basale remains viable;  Normal body temperature = 37 ℃ Regeneration of the epidermis (98.6⁰F) occurs within the burn area  Rate of chemical reactions within the a. First-degree burns body can increased of decreased  Epidermis based on the body temp.  Red and painful  Factors that raise body temperature  Slight edema (swelling) Exercise b. Second-degree burns Fever  Epidermis, dermis Increase in environmental  Epidermis regenerates temperature from the epithelial  The skin controls heat loss from the tissue body through dilation and constriction  Dermal damage is of blood vessels minimal;  Sweat glands produce sweat, which Redness, pain, edema, evaporates and lowers body blisters temperature Healing = 2 weeks  Heat is lost by radiation (infrared No scarring energy), convection (air movement),  Deep into the dermis conduction (direct contact) Red, tan, or white 5. Excretion Takes several months to  Skin glands remove water and salt heal  Also removes small amounts of urea, Might scar uric acid, ammonia  II. Full-thickness Burns INTEGUMENTARY a. Third-degree burns  Epidermis, dermis, and underlying SYSTEM AS A tissues are completely destroyed  Recovery occurs from the edges DIAGNOSTIC AID of the burn wound  Region of the 3rd degree burn is  Cyanosis – bluish color to the skin painless (sensory receptors have caused by decreased blod O2 been destroyed) content  White, tan, brown, black, deep  Jaundice – yellowish skin color cherry red caused by liver damage (viral  Take a long time to heal hepatitis)  Form scar tissue  Rashes & lesions - symptoms of  Skin grafts are used to prevent complications and to speed problems elsewhere; e.g. Scarlet healing fever causes reddish rash, allergic reaction to food or drugs can develop rashes SKIN CANCER  Vitamin A Deficiency – excess keratin; sandpaper texture  Most common type of cancer  Exposure to UV light from the sun characteristic  Usually on face, neck, hands  Iron Deficiency Anemia – nails  Most like to have skin cancer = fair become flat or concave skinned or older than 50  Lead Poisoning – high levels of  Limiting exposure to sun, using lead in the hair sunscreen will reduce the likelihood of developing skin cancer  Ultraviolet light  Increased melanin production = UVA freckles; also, gray/white hair  Longer wavelength  Skin that is exposed to sunlight =  Causes most tanning of the shows signs of aging more rapidly skin  Development of malignant melanoma UVB  Most burning of the skin  Development of basal cell and squamous cell carcinoma I. Basal cell carcinoma  Most frequent type  S. basale and extends into the dermis to produce an open ulcer  Cure; surgical removal or radiation therapy  Little danger of cancer to spread, metastasize II. Squamous cell carcinoma  Immediately superficial to the s. basale  Cells continue to divide as they produce keratin = nodular, keratinized tumor confined to the epidermis  Can invade the dermis, metastasize, and cause death III. Malignant melanoma  Rare form of skin cancer that arises from melanocytes; usually from a pre- existing mole  Mole – an aggregation or nest of melanocytes  Large, flat, spreading lesion or deeply pigmented nodule  Metastasis is common  Often fatal EFFECTS OF AGING ON THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM  Epidermis thins  Amount of collagen in the dermis decreases  Skin infections are most likely Repair of skin occurs slower  Decrease no. of elastic fibers in the dermis and loss of fat (sagging of skin, wrinkles)  Decrease of activity of sweat glands = reduced ability to regulate body temp.  Decrease sebaceous gland activity = skin becomes drier  Decrease no. of melanocytes  Some areas, the no. of melanocytes increase = age spots 33  SKELETAL SYSTEM Skeletal System is consists of the bone, cartilage, tendons and ligaments. Skeleton; dried (Greek)  Functions Support Protection Movement Storage Blood cell production  Extracellular Matrix Composed of connective tissues  Collagen – tough rope-like protein  Proteoglycans – large molecules consisting of polysaccharides attached to core proteins  Tendons & Ligaments – large amounts of collagen fiber  Cartilage – contains collagen & proteoglycans  Bone – contains collagen and minerals (Calcium & Phosphate)  Hydroxyapatite – calcium phosphate crystals GENERAL FEATURES LAYERS OF A BONE OF BONE  Periosteum – outermost  Long bones; upper and lower limbs layer; surround the diaphysis;  Short bones; wrist and ankle contain blood vessels, nerves,  Irregular bones; vertebrae and facial osteoblasts bones  Endosteum – innermost layer; lines the medullary cavity (thinner Long Bones connective tissue)  Diaphysis – central shaft  Bone substance – EM and cells  Epiphysis – ends  Epiphyseal plates – growth plate; where the bone grows in length HISTOLOGY OF BONE  Osteoblasts – bone-forming cells; repair and remodeling of bone Articular cartilage – covers the ends of the  Osteocytes – bone cells located epiphyses between the lamellae (thins sheets of EM) Epiphyseal line – bone growth stops and  Lacunae – spaces within the the epiphyseal plate is replaced by bone lamellae  Canaliculi – tiny canals within the Medullary Cavity – large cavity in the lamellae diaphysis; contains the marrow Marrow – soft tissue within the cavity TYPES OF BONES Yellow Marrow – consists of adipose tissue (fat) a. Compact bone  Forms most of the diaphysis of Red Marrow – consists of bone forming long bones cells; site of blood formation   Central Canal / Haversian Canal – concentric rings that contains blood vessels; ‘bull’s eye’ BONE REMODELING  Osteon / Haversian System – central canal + lamellae +  Removal of existing bone by osteocytes osteoclasts  Deposition of new bone by b. Spongy bone osteoblasts  Located mainly in the epiphyses of  Responsible for change in bone shape, long bones bone adjustment, repair, and calcium  Forms the interior of all other ion regulation bones  Consists of trabeculae (interconnecting rods, plates of BONE REPAIR bone) without central canals  Clot is formed in the damaged area BONE OSSIFICATION  Blood vessels and cells invade the clot and form a callus (network of fibers Ossification – formation of bone by and islets of cartilage) osteoblasts  Osteoblasts enter the callus and from a spongy bone Types of Ossification  Bone is slowly remodeled to  a. Intramembranous ossification – compact bone osteoblasts begin to produce bone in connective tissue Ossification centers – where BONE AND CALCIUM intramembranous ossification begins HOMEOSTASIS  b. Endochondral ossification – bone formation occurs inside the cartilage;  Osteoclasts remove calcium = bones at the base of the skull and blood calcium levels increases remaining skeletal system are formed  Osteoblasts deposit calcium = blood Chondrocytes – cartilage cells; calcium levels decrease increase in number, enlarge, and die Hormones that Maintain Calcium Homeostasis Primary ossification center – where bone  Parathyroid hormone (PTH) first begins to Parathyroid gland; appear Increase bone breakdown & increase blood calcium levels; Osteoclasts – cells that remove calcified Stimulates the kidneys to from cartilage matrix active vitamin D  Calcitonin Secondary ossification center – form in Thyroid gland the epiphyses Decrease bone breakdown and decrease blood calcium levels BONE GROWTH BONE AND CALCIUM  Deposition of new bone lamellae HOMEOSTASIS onto existing bone  Bone elongation occurs at the epiphyseal plate; leads to increase in 206 bones = adult height (endochondral ossification) 276 bones = newborn baby  Chondrocytes proliferate,enlarge, die, and are replaced by bone  Foramen – hole in a bone  Canal / Meatus – elongated hole in a Appositional growth – increase in bone tunnel like body width or diameter  Fossa – depression in a bone  Tubercle / Tuberosity – lump on a 4 - 5. Temporal Bone(paired) – bone lies inferior to the parietal bone;  Process – projection from a bone squamous suture  Condyle – end of a bine that forms a  External Auditory Meatus joint with another bone (EAM) – a canal that leads  Facet – small flattened articular surface to the eardrum and the middle  Crest – prominent ridge ear  Trochanter – tuberosity found only on  Styloid process – a sharp, proximal femur needlelike structure located  Fissure – cleft inferior to the EAM  Sinus – cavity  Zygomatic process – a  Suture – a joint uniting the bones of bridge of bone that joins with the skull the cheekbone anteriorly  Mastoid Process – a rough projection posterior and AXIAL SKELETON inferior to the EAM 6. Occipital Bone – inferior and posterior bone of the cranium; lambdoid suture  Foramen magnum – where the spinal cord joins the brain  Occipital condyles –rests on the first vertebra of the vertebral column  Foramen ovale – allows the fiber of cranial nerve 5 to pass 7. Sphenoid Bone –butterfly- shaped bone that spans the width of the skull  Sella Turtica – saddle- shaped structure at the central region; contains the pituitary gand 8. Ethmoid Bone – irregularly shaped bone that lies anterior to the sphenoid bone  Facial bones 14 bones; 13 solidly connected, 1 movable (mandible) Holds the facial muscles in place Joined together by sutures (interlocking, immovable)  Composed of the skull, vertebral 1-2. Maxillae – main bones of the column, and thoracic cage face; carries the upper teeth  Form the longitudinal axis of the body 3-4. Palatine Bones – lies posterior to the palatine I. Skull processes of the maxilla  22 bones 5-6. Zygomatic Bones –  Braincase cheekbones 8 bones 7-8. Lacrimal Bones – bones Covers and protects the fragile forming part of the medial wall of brain tissue each orbit 1. Frontal Bone – forehead, 9-10. Nasal Bones – bones bony projections under the forming the bridge of the bone eyebrow, part of the eye’s 11-12. Inferior Nasal Conchae – orbit thin curved bones projecting from the 2 - 3. Parietal Bone (paired) – lateral wall of the nasal cavity the superior and lateral walls of the cranium; coronal suture  13. Vomer Bone – single Vertebral canal – where the bone in the median of the spinal cord is located; protects the nasal cavity spinal cord from injury 14. Mandible – lower jaw;only Intervertebral foramina – where freely movable joint of the spnal nerves exit the spinal cord face Articular process – where the vertebra articulate with each other  Hyoid Bone – U-shaped bone; Articular facet – smooth ‘little provides attachment to tongue muscles; face’ elevates the larynx during speech and swallowing Regional Differences in Vertebrae  Cervical Vertebrae – very small II. Vertebral Column bodies, dislocation and fractures are  Central axis of the skeleton common int his area  26 individual bones; Atlas – 1st CV; holds up the head; 7 cervical vertebrae ‘yes’ shaking 12 thoracic vertebrae Axis – 2nd CV; considerable 5 lumbar vertebrae amount of rotation; ‘no’ shaking 1 sacral bone Dens – where the rotation occurs 1 coccyx bone  Thoracic vertebrae – long, thin  Functions spinous processes; articulate the ribs Supports the weight of the head and  Lumbar vertebrae – large, thick the trunk. bodies; heavy, rectangular transverse + Protects the spinal cord. spinous processes; carry large amount Allows the spinal nerves to exit the of weight; ruptured intervertebral disks spinal cord. are common Site for muscle attachment.  Sacrum – five sacral vertebrae fused in Permits movement of the head and one trunk. Median Sacral Crest – spinous process of the 1st four SV Kyphosis – posterior curvature; hunchback Sacral Hiatus – inferior end of the sacrum; the 5th process of the SV Lordosis – anterior curvature; swayback that does not form; common side condition of caudal anesthetic injections Sacral Promontory – anterior Scoliosis – lateral curvature edge of the 1sy SV that bulges; landmark felt during vaginal General Plan of the Vertebral Column examination; reference point in  Body – weight-bearing portion vaginal delivery of a baby Intervertebral disks body –  Coccyx – tailbone; fusion of 4 or separates the vertebral bodies more/less fused vertebrae; easily Vertebral arch – surrounds the broken vertebral foramen  2 Pedicles – extends from III. Rib Cage the body to the transverse  Also called the thoracic cage process  Protects the vital organs  2 Laminae – extends from  Prevents thorax collapse during the transverse to the spinous respiration process  Provides attachment sites for 1. Rib Cage the muscles that move the  12 pair of ribs vertebral column; 1 – 7 true ribs (attached directly Transverse process – extends to the sternum) laterally bet. the lamina and 8 – 12 false ribs (do not attach pedicle directly to the sternum) Spinous process – projects 11 – 12 floating ribs (do not dorsally where the two laminae attach to the sternum) meet 2. Sternum Vertebral foramen – a large  Also called the breastbone opening  Jugular notch – a depression bet. 2. Glenoid cavity – 4th fossa; where the the ends of the clavicles where head of the humerus connects to the they articulate with the sternum scapula Sternal angle – a slight elevation Spine – a ridge that runs across felt at the junction of the the posterior surface fo the manubrium and the sternum; scapula important landmark bcos it 3. Acromion process – extends from the identifies the 2nd rib scapular spine to form the point of the Xiphoid process – important shoulder landmark of the sternum during 4. Clavicle – collarbone; articulates with the CPR scapula art the acromion process 5. Coracoid process – provides for the attachment of arm and chest muscles APPPENDICULAR II. Upper Limb SKELETON 1. Arm – region bet, the shoulder and the elbow; contains the humerus; has two tubercles: greater tubercle and lesser tubercle Deltoid Tuberosity – where the deltoid muscle attaches Epicondyles – provide attachment sites for forearm muscles 2. Forearm Radius – lateral to the thumb Radial tuberosity – where the arm muscles (biceps brachii) attaches Ulna – medial to the little finger  Trochlear notch – forms most of the elbow joint  Coronoid process – helps complete the grip of the ulna  Olecranon process – extension of the ulna  Styloid process – articulates with the bones of the wrist 3. Wrist – short region bet. the forearm and the hand; 8 carpal bones: Scaphiod Lunate Triquetrum Pisiform Hamate Capitate Trapezoi Trapezium 4. Hand – 5 metacarpal bones are attached to the carpal bones  126 bones Phalanges – 3 small bones on  Consists of the bones of the upper and each finger lower limbs, as well as the girdles III. Pelvic Girdle I. Pectoral Girdle  Where lower limbs attach to the body  Also called the shoulder girdle  Coxal bones – hip bones; join each  Consists of 4 bones; 2 scapulae + 2 other anteriorly and the sacrum clavicles posteriorly to form a ring of bone called the pelvic girdle 1. Scapula – shoulder blade; where Ilium – most superior muscles extending to the arm are attached  Ischium – inferior and posterior; Synarthrosis joints – non- sit down bone movable Pubis – inferior and anterior Amphiarthrosis joints – slight  Iliac crest – seen along the superior movable margin of each ilim Diarthrosis – freely movable Anterior Superior Iliac Spine – important hip landmark; anterior I. Fibrous Joints end of the iliac crest  2 bones that are united by fibrous  Pubic symphysis – where coxal tissue bones join anteriorly  Exhibit little or no movement Sacroiliac joints – joins the 1. Sutures – bet. the bones of the skull; sacrum posteriorly squamous, lambdoid, coronal  Acetabulum – socket of the hip joint Fontanels – sutures that are quite  Obturator foramen – large hole in wide in a newborn each coxal bone 2. Syndesmoses – bones are separated by  Pelvic inlet – formed by the pelvic brim some distance and held together by and the sacral promontory ligaments; FB  Pelvic outlet – bounded by the ischial connecting the radius and ulna spines, pubic symphysis, and coccyx 3. Gomphoses – consists of pegs fitted into  Male pelvis: larger and massive; sockets and held in place by ligaments; joint Female pelvis; broader bet. a tooth and its socket IV. Lower Limbs 1. Thigh – region bet. the hip andthe knee; II. Cartilaginous Joints contains the femur  Unites two bones by means of cartilage Head of the femur – articulates  Slight movement can occur with the acetabulum of the coxal  Epiphyseal plates of growing long bone bones Condyles – articulates with the  Cartilage bet. the ribs and the sternum tibia  Fibrocartilage forms joints such as the Epidondyles – points of ligaments intervertebral disks attachments Trochanters – lateral to the head III. Synovial Joints after the neck  Freely movable joints Patella – knee cap; enables the  Contains fluid in a cavity surrounding tendon to bend over the knee the ends of articulating bones 2. Leg – region bet. the knee and the ankle  Articulating cartilage – thin layer that Tibia – shinbone; larger; major covers the articular surfaces of bones weight-bearing bone of the leg; w/in the synovial joints medial malleolus  Joint cavity – filled with fluid Fibula – thin and sticklike that  Joint capsule – encloses the cavity forms the lateral side of the leg; that helps hold the bones together and lateral malleolus allows for movement 3. Ankle – 7 tarsla bones  Synovial membrane – lines the joint Talus – ankle bone cavity everywhere Calcaneus – heel bone  Synovial fluid – produced by the SM; Cuboid covers the surfaces of the joint Navicular  Bursa – a pocket or sac; located bet. Cuneiforms; medial, intermediate, Structures that rub together lateral  Bursitis – inflammation of the bursa; 4. Foot often results to abrasion Metatarsal bones and phalanges  Tendon Sheath – extension of SM – arranged and numbered in a along some tendons similar manner to the hand  Types: Has 3 primary arches Plane/Gliding Joints – two opposed flat surfaces that glide JOINTS over each other Saddle Joints – two saddle  Also called an articulation. shaped articulating surfaces  Where two bones come together oriented at right angles; joint  between the metacarpal bone and the carpal bone of the thumb Hinge Joints – permit movement in one plane only; elbow and knee joints  Menisci – shock-absorbing fibrocartilage pads Pivot Joints – restrict movement to rotation around a single axis; rotation that occurs between the axis and atlas; articulation bet. the ulna and radius Ball and socket Joints – consist of a ball (head) and a socket; shoulder and hip joints Ellipsoid/Condyloid Joints – elongated ball and socket joints; joint bet. the occipital condyles (skull) and the atlas (vertebral column); joints between the metacarpals and phalanges  Types of Movement Flexion – movement that takes place in a frontal/coronal plane  Plantar flexion – when standing on the toes  Dorsiflexion – movement of the foot toward the shin (walking on heels) Extension – movement that takes place in a posterior direction Lateral Flexion – movement of the trunk in the coronal plane Abduction – movement away from the median plane Adduction – movement toward the median plane Pronation – rotation of the forearm so that the palm is down Supination – rotation of the forearm so that the palm faces up Eversion – opposite movement of the foot so that the sole faces in a lateral direction Inversion – movement of the foot so that the sole faces medially Rotation – movement of a part of the body around its long axis Circumduction – combination in sequence of the flexion, extension, abduction, adduction Protraction – to move forward Retraction – to move backward Hyperextension – abnormal, forced extension of a joint beyond its normal range of motion 41  MUSCULAR SYSTEM  Muscle Fiber Structure Sarcolemma – cell membrane of  Functions the muscle fiber Movement of the body. Transverse tubules (T tubules) – Maintenance of posture. tube-like invaginations w/c occur Respiration at regular intervals along the Production of body heat muscle fiber Communication Sarcoplasmic reticulum – highly Constriction of organs and vessels organized smooth E.R.; has a Contraction of the heart relatively high concentration of Ca2 + (muscle contraction) Sarcoplasm – cytoplasm of a CHARACTERISTICS OF