Cohen 9e Chapter 2: Historical, Cultural, and Legal/Ethical Considerations PDF

Chapter 2 Historical, Cultural, and Legal/Ethical Considerations McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2018 McGraw-Hill Companies. All Rights Reserved.  A Historical Perspective Antiquity to the Nineteenth Century The first systematic tests were developed in...

Chapter 2 Historical, Cultural, and Legal/Ethical Considerations McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2018 McGraw-Hill Companies. All Rights Reserved.  A Historical Perspective Antiquity to the Nineteenth Century The first systematic tests were developed in China as early as 2200 B.C.E. as a means of selecting people for government jobs Individuals passing the tests were entitled to a number of privileges, which varied depending on the current dynasty Ancient Greco-Roman writings attempted to categorize people in terms of personality types © 2018 McGraw-Hill Companies. All Rights Reserved. 2-2  A Historical Perspective (continued 1) Darwin’s interest in individual differences led his half cousin, Francis Galton, to devise a number of measures for psychological variables In Germany, Wilhelm Wundt started the first experimental psychology laboratory and measured variables such as reaction time, perception, and attention span James McKeen Cattell, inspired by his interaction with Galton, coined the term mental test in 1890 and was responsible for introducing mental testing in America © 2018 McGraw-Hill Companies. All Rights Reserved. 2-3  A Historical Perspective (continued 2) The twentieth century brought the first tests of abilities such as intelligence In 1905, Binet and Simon developed the first intelligence test to identify intellectually disabled Paris schoolchildren Before long, psychological tests were being used on a regular basis in schools, clinics, courts, hospitals, and prisons World Wars I and II brought the need for large-scale testing of the intellectual ability of new recruits After World War II, psychologists increasingly used the tests in large corporations and private organizations © 2018 McGraw-Hill Companies. All Rights Reserved. 2-4  A Historical Perspective (continued 3) By the late 1930s, about 4,000 psychological tests were in print The Woodworth Psychoneurotic Inventory was the first widely used self-report personality test An advantage of self-report is that respondents are arguably the best-qualified people to provide answers about themselves A potential disadvantage is that respondents may have poor insight into themselves, and people might honestly believe some things about themselves that in reality are not true Some respondents are unwilling to reveal anything about themselves that is very personal or that paints them in a negative light © 2018 McGraw-Hill Companies. All Rights Reserved. 2-5  A Historical Perspective (continued 4) Projective tests, such as the Rorschach Inkblot Test, are tests in which an individual is assumed to “project” onto some ambiguous stimulus his or her own unique needs, fears, hopes, and motivation Psychological assessment has proceeded along two lines, the academic and the applied Academic tradition - Researchers at universities throughout the world use the tools of assessment to help advance knowledge and understanding of human and animal behavior In the applied tradition, the goal is to select applicants for various positions on the basis of merit © 2018 McGraw-Hill Companies. All Rights Reserved. 2-6  Culture and Assessment Culture: The socially transmitted behavior patterns, beliefs, and products of work of a particular population, community, or group of people (Cohen, 1994) Professionals in assessment have shown increasing sensitivity to cultural issues with every aspect of test development and use Early psychological testing of immigrant populations by Henry Goddard was controversial He found that the majority of immigrant populations were feebleminded Psychological testing at Ellis Island © 2018 McGraw-Hill Companies. All Rights Reserved. 2-7  Culture and Assessment (continued 1) Goddard’s findings were largely the result of using a translated Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test that overestimated mental deficiency in native English-speaking populations, let alone immigrant populations Goddard’s research sparked a nature–nurture debate; were IQ results indicative of some underlying native ability or the extent to which knowledge and skills had been acquired? In the 1930s and 1940s, developers of IQ tests devised culture-specific tests and clarified that the tests were not intended for minority cultures; yet, the tests were used on individuals belonging to other cultures Today, developers of intelligence tests take precautions against bias © 2018 McGraw-Hill Companies. All Rights Reserved. 2-8  Culture and Assessment (continued 2) Verbal communication Certain nuances of meaning may be lost in translation Some interpreters may not be familiar with mental health issues and pre-training may be necessary In interviews, language deficits may be detected by trained examiners but may go undetected in written tests Assessments need to be evaluated in terms of the language proficiency required and the language level of the testtaker © 2018 McGraw-Hill Companies. All Rights Reserved. 2-9  Culture and Assessment (continued 3) Nonverbal communication and behavior Nonverbal signs or body language may vary from one culture to another Psychoanalysis pays particular attention to the symbolic meaning of nonverbal behavior Other cultures may complete tasks at a different pace, which may be particularly problematic for timed tests © 2018 McGraw-Hill Companies. All Rights Reserved. 2-10  Culture and Assessment (continued 4) Standards of evaluation Judgments related to certain psychological traits can be culturally relative Cultures differ with regard to gender roles and views of psychopathology Cultures also vary in terms of collectivist vs. individualist value Collectivist cultures value traits such as conformity, cooperation, interdependence, and striving toward group goals Individualist cultures place value on traits such as self- reliance, autonomy, independence, uniqueness, and competitiveness © 2018 McGraw-Hill Companies. All Rights Reserved. 2-11  Culture and Assessment (continued 5) Tests and group membership Conflict often ensues when groups systematically differ in terms of scores on a particular test In vocational assessment, test users are sensitive to legal and ethical mandates concerning the use of tests with regard to hiring, firing, and related decision making Conflicts may arise from disagreements about the criteria for performing a particular job Some would argue that if tests are measuring what they are supposed to then group membership should not be an issue, while others seek to “level the playing field” through initiatives such as affirmative action © 2018 McGraw-Hill Companies. All Rights Reserved. 2-12  Legal and Ethical Issues Concerns of the public Concerns started after World War I when tests developed for military use were adapted in schools and industry The launch of Sputnik by the Soviet Union prompted the U.S. government to greatly increase testing of abilities and aptitudes in schools to identify talented students Simultaneously, ability and personality testing greatly increased in government, the military, and business This led to renewed public concern © 2018 McGraw-Hill Companies. All Rights Reserved. 2-13  Legal and Ethical Issues (continued 1) Public concern was further stoked in 1969 by Arthur Jensen’s article in the Harvard Educational Review in which he suggested that “genetic factors are strongly implicated in the average Negro–white intelligence difference” Jensen’s work caused renewed public concern over nature- versus-nurture issues and what intelligence tests really measured In recent decades, the government has been extensively involved in various aspects of assessment © 2018 McGraw-Hill Companies. All Rights Reserved. 2-14  Legal and Ethical Issues (continued 2) Legislation Minimal competency testing programs: Many states in the 1970s passed laws to the effect that high school graduates should be able to meet “minimal competencies” in reading, writing, and arithmetic Truth-in-testing legislation: Passed at the state level, starting in the 1980s, the objective was to give testtakers a way to learn the criteria by which they are being judged © 2018 McGraw-Hill Companies. All Rights Reserved. 2-15  Legal and Ethical Issues (continued 3) The Civil Rights Act of 1964 created the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) to enforce the act The EEOC has published sets of guidelines concerning standards to be met in constructing and using employment tests; they seek to prevent discriminatory testing practices during employment There is public demand for proportional representation in hiring and school acceptance, yet there are gaps in test performance by various groups Some scholars have argued that if the tests are valid and useful, they should not be changed or dismissed but rather the skill gap should be addressed © 2018 McGraw-Hill Companies. All Rights Reserved. 2-16  Legal and Ethical Issues (continued 4) Law can also derive from litigation PARC v. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania (1971) and Mills v. Board of Education of District of Columbia (1972) prompted Congress to ensure appropriate educational opportunities for children with disabilities Psychologists may act as expert witnesses in civil and criminal cases The 1923 case of Frye v. the United States established that scientific research is admissible as evidence when the research study or method enjoys general acceptance; general acceptance could typically be established by the testimony of experts and by reference to publications in peer-reviewed journals © 2018 McGraw-Hill Companies. All Rights Reserved. 2-17  Legal and Ethical Issues (continued 5) The Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals ruling by the Supreme Court superseded the long-standing policy, set forth in Frye, of admitting into evidence only scientific testimony that had won general acceptance in the scientific community Opposing expert testimony, whether or not such testimony had won general acceptance in the scientific community, would be admissible The Daubert ruling gave trial judges more leeway in deciding which expert testimony could be used Some jurisdictions still rely on the Frye standard when it comes to admitting expert testimony, and some subscribe to Daubert © 2018 McGraw-Hill Companies. All Rights Reserved. 2-18  Concerns of the Profession The APA and related professional organizations have published many works over the years to delineate ethical, sound practice in the field of psychological testing and assessment Test user qualifications - In 1950, an APA Committee on Ethical Standards for Psychology published a report called Ethical Standards for the Distribution of Psychological Tests and Diagnostic Aids It outlined three levels of tests in terms of expertise: Level A - Tests or aids that can adequately be administered, scored, and interpreted with the aid of the manual Level B - Tests or aids that require some technical knowledge of test construction/use and knowledge of psychology and education Level C - Tests and aids that require substantial understanding of testing and supporting psychological fields together with supervised experience in the use of these devices © 2018 McGraw-Hill Companies. All Rights Reserved. 2-19 Concerns of the Profession (continued 1) Testing people with disabilities - Some challenges in testing people with disabilities may include 1) transforming the test into a form that can be taken by the testtaker, 2) transforming the responses of the testtaker so that they are scorable, and 3) meaningfully interpreting the test data Under Oregon’s Death with Dignity Act, terminally ill patients requesting assistance dying must first have a psychological evaluation © 2018 McGraw-Hill Companies. All Rights Reserved. 2-20  Concerns of the Profession (continued 2) Computerized test administration, scoring, and interpretation A number of psychological tests can be purchased on disc or administered and scored online Offer convenience, simplicity, and greater range of assessment Issues in computer-assisted psychological assessment (CAPA) Access to test administration, scoring, and interpretation software Comparability of pencil-and-paper and computerized tests The value of computerized test interpretations Unprofessional, unregulated “psychological testing” online © 2018 McGraw-Hill Companies. All Rights Reserved. 2-21  The Rights of Testtakers Testtakers have a right to know why they are being evaluated, how the test data will be used, and what (if any) information will be released to whom With full knowledge of such information, testtakers give their informed consent Information needed for consent must be in language the testtaker can understand Some groups (e.g., people with Alzheimer’s disease) may not have the capacity, or competency, to provide informed consent © 2018 McGraw-Hill Companies. All Rights Reserved. 2-22  The Rights of Testtakers (continued 1) Components of competency include: 1) Being able to evidence a choice as to whether one wants to participate 2) Demonstrating a factual understanding of the issues 3) Being able to reason about the facts of a study, treatment, or whatever it is to which consent is sought 4) Appreciating the nature of the situation If competency cannot be provided by the person, consent may be obtained from a parent or a legal representative © 2018 McGraw-Hill Companies. All Rights Reserved. 2-23  The Rights of Testtakers (continued 2) The right to be informed of test findings - In the past, testtakers were often not informed of diagnostic findings or anything that might hurt their self-image Currently, giving information about test performance to examinees is ethically and legally mandated and may be useful from a therapeutic perspective as well Testtakers have a right to know about test findings and recommendations Test users should sensitively inform testtakers of the purpose of the test, the meaning of the score relative to those of other testtakers, and the possible limitations and margins of error of the test © 2018 McGraw-Hill Companies. All Rights Reserved. 2-24  The Rights of Testtakers (continued 3) The right to privacy and confidentiality - In most states, information provided by clients to psychologists is considered privileged information Privilege is not absolute - Psychologists may have to disclose information if it will prevent harm either to the client or to some endangered third party Another ethical mandate regarding confidentiality pertains to safeguarding test data The right to the least stigmatizing label - The Standards advise that the least stigmatizing labels should always be assigned when reporting test results © 2018 McGraw-Hill Companies. All Rights Reserved. 2-25