Psychological Assessment - PSYCHO8L Midterm PDF

Psychological Assessment – PSYCH08L LECTURE: Lesson 1 Part 1 TESTING IN CONTRAST TO ASSESSMENT AN OVERVIEW OF PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING AND ASSESSMENT...

Psychological Assessment – PSYCH08L LECTURE: Lesson 1 Part 1 TESTING IN CONTRAST TO ASSESSMENT AN OVERVIEW OF PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING AND ASSESSMENT ASSESSMENT Receptivity to Alfred Binet's test in the early 20th century led Objective: to the growth of the testing enterprise with more tests, developers, answer a referral question, solve a problem, or arrive at a publishers, and users. decision through the use of tools of evaluation Process: TESTING individualized — originally used to refer to everything from the administration of focuses on how an individual processes rather than simply the a test to the interpretation of a test score results of that processing Role of Evaluator: DURING WORLD WAR I assessor is key to the process of selecting tests and/or tools of — the term "testing" aptly described the group screening of evaluation as well as drawing conclusions thousands of military recruits Skill of Evaluator: — postwar textbooks and writings continued to use "testing" requires an educated selection of tools of evaluation inclusively for administration and interpretation Outcome: entails a logical problem-solving approach that brings to bear WORLD WAR II many sources of data designed to shed light on a referral — a semantic distinction between "testing" and the more inclusive question term "assessment" started to emerge TESTING ASSESSMENT Objective: — acknowledges tests as one of several tools used by professional obtain some gauge, usually numerical in nature, with regard to assessors, linked to the assessor's knowledge and skill an ability or attribute Process: ALFRED BINET may be conducted individually or in groups — developed the first standardized intelligence tests at the Role of Evaluator: beginning of the 20th century in France tester is not the key to the process — he was not trying to create an IQ test; he was trying to identify a tester may be substituted for another tester without children who might have difficulty in school appreciably affecting the evaluation — analyzed abilities that he felt were important to succeed in school Skill of Evaluator: In 1905, he developed a test called the “Binet Intelligence requires technician-like skills in administering and scoring a Scale/Test” in which he had children do tasks such as follow test as well as in interpreting a test result commands, copy patterns, name objects, and put things in Outcome: order or arrange them properly yields a test score or series of test scores Binet's tests became very successful and were quickly adopted by American and British psychologists. The test results were consolidated RETROSPECTIVE ASSESSMENT AND REMOTE ASSESSMENT into one concept - "intelligence quotient" or IQ. Historically, IQ was calculated as the proportion of mental development and chronological age RETROSPECTIVE ASSESSMENT multiplied by 100. In modern times, IQ is measured in other ways, but still — defined as using evaluative tools to draw conclusions about a on a scale of 100 with a standard deviation of 16 person's past psychological aspects before the assessment Soldiers take a psychological test (the exact type of examination is REMOTE ASSESSMENT unclear) in Camp Lee in Virginia in November 1917, the year the United — involves using psychological evaluation tools to gather data States entered World War I and Woodworth first developed his test. and draw conclusions about a subject not physically present American soldiers at a hospital camp in France recovering from what near the evaluators was then known as war neurosis or war neuroses. ARMY ALPHA and ARMY BETA THE PROCESS OF ASSESSMENT — Army Alpha – a brief intelligence test designed for men who could fluently read English REFERRAL QUESTIONS — implemented in World War I — the assessment process typically begins with a referral from — had a major influence on intelligence testing in the U.S. various sources — developed by a team of psychologists including Robert Yerkes — are put forth to the assessor regarding the subject being evaluated ❖ In many psychological evaluation contexts, conducting an FEEDBACK SESSIONS with the assessee and other interested parties assessment requires greater education, training, and skill than simply administering a test. COLLABORATIVE PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT — involves working as partners with the assessee throughout the PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT process — involves gathering and integrating psychology-related data using various tools for the purpose of making a psychological THERAPEUTIC PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT evaluation and answering a reason for referral — aims to be helpful throughout the assessment process, encouraging self-discovery and new understandings PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING — process of measuring psychology-related variables by means of DYNAMIC ASSESSMENT devices or procedures designed to obtain a sample of behavior — an interactive approach involving evaluation, intervention, and re-evaluation, commonly used in educational settings INTERVENTION — intervention between evaluations may take various forms, and dynamic assessment may assess learning potential or "learning how to learn" skills, often using computers Kristine Abegael Page 1 of 14 Psychological Assessment – PSYCH08L 7. COMPUTERS AS TOOLS THE TOOLS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT — administration, scoring, and interpretation — can serve as test administrators, both online and offline, and 1. THE TEST highly efficient test scorers — a measuring device or procedure designed to measure a variable scoring can be done on-site (local processing) or at a central related to its modifier location (central processing), with data transmitted through — measure variables related to psychology various means — e.g., intelligence, personality, aptitude, interests, attitudes, or values, using samples of behavior SCORING REPORT – simplest form of reporting which provides a mere — differ in content, format, administration process, scoring and listing of the test-taker's scores interpretation procedures, and technical quality EXTENDED SCORING REPORT – offers more information, including — can be administered one-to-one or to groups statistical analyses of the test-taker’s performance INTERPRETIVE REPORT – includes numerical or narrative interpretive CONTENT – varies based on the test’s focus, and different test developers statements, providing deeper insights into the test-taker's may have different views and theoretical orientations performance FORMAT – refers to the form, plan, structure, and layout of test items and CONSULTATIVE REPORT – at the highest level of interpretive reports, how the test is administered (e.g., computerized, pencil-and- typically written in language suitable for communication paper) between assessment professionals SCORING – involves assigning evaluative codes or statements to — offers expert opinions and in-depth analysis of the data performance; different types of scores exist, including cut INTEGRATIVE REPORT – incorporates data from sources outside the test scores used for classifications and decision-making itself into the interpretive report — may include data from medication records or behavioral 2. THE INTERVIEW observation data that have been collected previously — involves more than just verbal talk, as it includes observations of COMPUTER ADAPTIVE TESTING (CAT) – tailors the test to the test- nonverbal behavior and various communication formats taker's ability or test-taking pattern — can be conducted face-to-face, by phone, in sign language, or — e.g., switching between subjects after consecutive failures or through electronic means like online, email, or text messaging providing score feedback during the test PANEL INTERVIEWS – involve multiple interviewers, aiming to minimize 8. OTHER TOOLS individual biases, but they may be costlier MOTIVATIONAL INTERVIEWING – combines person-centered listening SPECIALLY CREATED VIDEOS – psychotherapists may diagnose and skills with cognition-altering techniques to effect therapeutic create treatment plans for clients presented to them on video change to assess their clinical abilities THERMOMETERS and GAUGES – using tools not traditionally associated 3. THE PORTFOLIO with the field, to measure bodily functions like temperature and — a collection of work products from various fields, including art, blood pressure architecture, and education BIOFEEDBACK EQUIPMENT – used to measure bodily reactions, such as — serve as tools of evaluation, used by employers and educators muscular tension, in response to stimuli to assess a person's abilities and accomplishments SPECIALIZED INSTRUMENTS – e.g., penile plethysmograph, used for — e.g., employers of commercial artists and on-air radio talent base diagnosing and treating sexual predators by measuring male hiring decisions partly on the quality of the applicants' portfolios sexual arousal PORTFOLIO ASSESSMENT – considered valuable and applicable in various fields of an individual’s capabilities WHO ARE THE PARTIES? 4. CASE HISTORY DATA THE PARTIES INVOLVED IN THE ASSESSMENT ENTERPRISE ARE: — includes records and accounts in various forms 1. developers and publishers of test — files, transcripts, letters, photos, videos, social media postings, etc. 2. users of test (test users) — clinical, neuropsychological evaluations, school psychology 3. people being evaluated by tests (test-takers), and 4. society at large CASE STUDY or CASE HISTORY – an illustrative account based on case history data that provides insights into individual or event TEST DEVELOPERS AND PUBLISHERS behavior and circumstances — create tests for various purposes, and they are aware of the significant impact test results can have on people's lives 5. BEHAVIORAL OBSERVATION — useful in designing therapeutic interventions in institutional TEST USERS settings like schools, hospitals, prisons, and group homes — administers the tests — assess patient’s capabilities in performing daily activities independently TEST-TAKER OR ASSESSEE — anyone who is the subject of an assessment or evaluation NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION — involves observing behavior in its typical setting, outside of SOCIETY AT LARGE controlled environments — plays a crucial role in the assessment enterprise, shaping laws, regulations, and societal demands that influence test 6. ROLE PLAY TESTS development and use — acting out an improvised or partially improvised part in a simulated situation for assessment purposes Other parties involved in the assessment enterprise: — assessees are directed to act as if they were in a particular organizations situation and are evaluated based on their expressed thoughts, companies behaviors, abilities, and other variables governmental agencies test-scoring services Role Play is extensively used in training scenarios, such as test marketers astronauts role-playing situations in outer space, to save time and academicians resources. In clinical settings, role play is used as a tool of assessment and reviewers of test outcome measure, for example in interventions with substance abusers, helping to obtain baseline measures and track progress post treatment PSYCHOLOGICAL AUTOPSY — a method of assessing deceased individuals' psychological profile based on archival records, artifacts, and interviews Kristine Abegael Page 2 of 14 Psychological Assessment – PSYCH08L 2. STANDARDIZED OR NON-STANDARDIZED THE THREE DEFINING CHARACTERISTICS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS 2.1 STANDARDIZED TESTS — designed to measure a specific construct or skill 1. All good tests representatively sample the behaviors thought to — administered to a large group of individuals who share similar measure an attribute or thought to predict an outcome. characteristics to the intended test-takers — involves selecting a diverse range of behaviors that reflect the Purpose: provide a frame of reference for interpreting individual target attribute test scores by comparing them to the scores of others in the standardization sample 2. All good tests include behavior samples that are obtained under Standardization Sample: given to a group of individuals who standardized conditions. match the characteristics of the target population for which the — administered under standardized conditions test is intended — ensures that test-takers experience the same testing environment Norms: data collected are used to establish norms, which — Standardization helps minimize extraneous factors that could represent the average performance and score distribution for influence test scores. the group Interpretation: test scores are interpreted by comparing an 3. All good tests have rules for scoring. individual's score to the established norms — have clear and consistent rules for scoring — e.g., If a test is designed to assess writing ability for high school — guidelines ensure that examiners score responses consistently students, it would be administered to a large group of high and objectively, regardless of who is administering the test school students to establish norms. 2.2 NON-STANDARDIZED TESTS — lack standardization samples ASSUMPTIONS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS — more prevalent than standardized tests Construction: typically created by teachers or trainers in a less Psychological tests measure what they purport to measure or predict formal manner and are intended for single administration what they are intended to predict. Absence of Norms: no established norms or reference groups An individual’s behavior, and therefore test scores, will typically for interpreting scores remain stable over time. Informal Nature: less structured and standardized in their Individuals understand test items the same way. design, allowing for flexibility in content and administration Individuals will report accurately about themselves — e.g., college exams Individuals will report honestly their thoughts and feelings. The test score that an individual receives is equal to his or her true 3. OBJECTIVE OR PROJECTIVE score plus some error, and this error may be attributable to the test itself, the examiner, the examinee, or the environment. 3.1 OBJECTIVE TESTS — have predetermined correct answers, requiring little subjective judgment from the scorer Response Formats: respond to true/false questions, multiple- TEST CLASSIFICATION METHODS choice questions, or rating scales with clear instructions — e.g., GRE, Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales, GATB, and most 1. MAXIMAL PERFORMANCE, BEHAVIOR OBSERVATION, OR SELF- classroom tests REPORT — NEO Personality Inventory-3: measures personality dimensions like neuroticism, extroversion, openness, agreeableness, and 1.1 MAXIMAL PERFORMANCE TESTS conscientiousness — assess an individual's ability to complete specific tasks to the Purpose: assessing knowledge, abilities, personality traits, and best of their ability various constructs with clear, quantifiable responses — scores are determined by how successful they are in completing e.g., making a right-hand turn; arranging blocks from smallest 3.2 PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUES to largest, tracing a pattern, completing math problems — involve unstructured or ambiguous stimuli (e.g., images or Test-Taker Motivation: do their best since their scores directly incomplete sentences) correlate with their task completion success — require test takers to respond subjectively — the better they perform, the higher their scores will be Interpretation: more subjectivity; responses are seen as projections of the test takers' beliefs, feelings, and unconscious 1.2 BEHAVIOR OBSERVATION TESTS thoughts — systematic observation of people's behavior in specific contexts Personal Nature: often elicit highly personal concerns and to understand how they typically respond in those situations emotions, making them suitable for detecting unconscious Observational Nature: focus on natural behavior and responses thoughts and personality characteristics rather than specific tasks or structured assessments Purpose: used to gain insights into a person's deeper emotions, Unawareness of Observation: individuals being observed are motivations, and psychological state and may identify the need often unaware that their behavior is under scrutiny, ensuring for counseling or therapeutic intervention that their reactions are authentic and not influenced by the — e.g., Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) – test takers respond to knowledge of being tested ambiguous pictures and tell a story based on what they see Absence of Defined Tasks: there are no predetermined tasks Clinical and Counseling Applications: to explore a person's for participants to perform inner world and aid in diagnosis and treatment planning Cultural Relevance: valuable insights into real-life scenarios 4. DIMENSION MEASURED 1.3 SELF-REPORT TESTS — tests are categorized based on the dimensions they measure, — require test takers to report or describe their feelings, beliefs, representing broader constructs rather than individual opinions, or mental states attributes or traits — e.g., Hogan Personality Inventory (HPI) – asks takers to indicate Different Dimensions: achievement tests, aptitude tests, whether each of more than 200 statements about themselves is intelligence tests, personality tests, and interest inventories true or false 5. ACHIEVEMENT TESTS — assess a person's previous learning in a specific academic area, measuring knowledge and skills acquired over time — e.g., Tests in computer programming, German, trigonometry, and psychology Educational Settings: commonly used in schools to determine students' learning progress, assign grades, identify special educational needs, and measure academic growth Kristine Abegael Page 3 of 14 Psychological Assessment – PSYCH08L 6. APTITUDE TESTS — evaluate a test taker's potential for learning or ability to perform LECTURE: Lesson 1 Part 2 in new job or situational contexts PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING AND ASSESSMENT: Purpose: predict an individual's capability and potential based A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE on accumulated life experiences Applications: schools, businesses, and government agencies to ANCIENT CHINA AROUND 2200 B.C.E. assess job performance, estimate training success, and guide — tests and testing programs are believed to have originated vocational guidance counseling — selection of government officials at that time was mostly based on political and familial connections 7. INTELLIGENCE TESTS — assess a person's ability to adapt and cope with the environment 196 B.C.E. at a broader level — hereditary system was replaced with a meritocratic approach for Applications: employed to screen individuals for specific selecting government officials programs, such as gifted or honors programs, and to identify — local aristocrats recommended qualified candidates mental challenges Settings: in educational and clinical environments SUI DYNASTY — introduced the imperial examination system in the 7th century 8. PERSONALITY TESTS to make the selection process more efficient and merit-based — evaluate human character or disposition, ranging from assessing clinical disorders to measuring normal personality traits EXAMINATION CONTENT EVOLVED OVER TIME Objective vs. Projective: having predefined response options reading or using ambiguous stimuli for subjective responses. writing Applications: various contexts, clinical settings, organizational record-keeping psychology, and career counseling arithmetic calculations for tax collection civil law 9. SUBJECT TESTS geography — psychological tests can also be classified by subject, grouping agriculture tests into specific areas of interest military strategy Categories: may include developmental, achievement, as surprising subjects like archery, horsemanship, religious behavior assessment, education, intelligence, personality, rites, classical literature, and poetry writing reading, science, social studies, and more Reference Books: Psychological testing reference books like Women were generally not allowed to take the exams, except for a the Mental Measurements Yearbook (MMY) often provide brief period in the 19th century. details on test characteristics, such as standardization, objectivity, and format PRIVILEGES OF SUCCEEDING IN IMPERIAL EXAMS: — varied across dynasties entitled individuals not only to government jobs but also to wear special garments, granting them special courtesies from others exemptions from taxes exemptions from government-sponsored interrogation by torture in case of suspected crimes ANCIENT GRECO-ROMAN WRITINGS — attempted to categorize people based on personality types — an overabundance or deficiency in bodily fluids (e.g., blood or phlegm) that were believed to influence personality traits MIDDLE AGES — the question of "Who is in league with the Devil?" became critical RENAISSANCE — marked the beginning of psychological assessment in the modern sense CHRISTIAN VON WOLFF — anticipated psychology as a science, with the psychological measurement as a specialized field within it (by 18th century) CHARLES DARWIN — 1859, his book "On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection" was published, proposing the idea of natural selection and an evolutionary link between humans and apes — sparked both admiration and enmity from religious individuals who saw it as conflicting with the biblical account of creation FRANCIS GALTON — half-cousin of Charles Darwin — heredity – initial work involved sweet peas — highly influential contributor to measurement in psychology — development of various tools for psychological assessment, such as questionnaires, rating scales, and self-report inventories — pioneered the use of statistical concepts like the coefficient of correlation (influenced Karl Pearson's development of the product-moment correlation technique) — his interest shifted to heredity in humans ANTHROPOMETRIC LABORATORY – where he showcased his methods for measuring various aspects of people's abilities Kristine Abegael Page 4 of 14 Psychological Assessment – PSYCH08L WILHELM MAX WUNDT SELF-REPORT PERSONALITY TESTS — founder of the first experimental psychology laboratory at the — pros: respondents being best-qualified to provide information University of Leipzig in Germany about themselves — focused on formulating a general description of human abilities — cons: poor insight, false beliefs, or unwillingness to reveal and emphasized controlling extraneous variables to minimize personal information error in experimentation PROJECTIVE PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT METHODS JAMES MCKEEN CATTELL — developed as alternatives to self-report — one of Wundt's students — involve individuals projecting their unique needs, fears, hopes, — conducted a doctoral dissertation on individual differences, and motivations onto ambiguous stimuli particularly in reaction time — pictures and photographs were used as projective stimuli MENTAL TEST – term he coined that contributed significantly — respondents were asked to tell stories about the pictures, to the advancement of mental testing in America and founding revealing their needs and motivations through analysis the Psychological Corporation HERMANN RORSCHACH OTHER NOTABLE STUDENTS OF WUNDT: RORSCHACH INKBLOT TEST Charles Spearman — a well-known projective test Victor Henri — individuals interpret inkblots Emil Kraepelin E. B. Titchener G. Stanley Hall CULTURE AND TESTING Lightner Witmer — made significant contributions to psychological assessment, The U.S. Public Health Service began using intelligence tests to test reliability, factor analysis, word association techniques, measure the intelligence of immigrants seeking to enter the United States and the founding of clinical psychology, respectively after Alfred Binet introduced intelligence testing in France. TWENTIETH CENTURY HENRY H. GODDARD — psychological testing mainly focused on measuring sensory — instrumental in adopting Binet's test in the United States abilities and reaction time — conducted mental tests with selected immigrants who appeared to have intellectual disability EARLY 1900S — found that most immigrants from various nationalities were — birth of the first formal tests of intelligence mentally deficient when tested, reporting high percentages of feeblemindedness in certain groups — fueled the ongoing nature-nurture debate about what THE MEASUREMENT OF INTELLIGENCE intelligence tests actually measure ALFRED BINET and VICTOR HENRI WHY IS GODDARD’S WORK CONTROVERSIAL? — advocated for the measurement of abilities (memory and social 1. USE OF INTELLIGENCE TESTING FOR IMMIGRATION comprehension) in 1895 — he administered tests to individuals from various cultural and language backgrounds ALFRED BINET and THEODORE SIMON — appropriateness of using such tests for diverse populations MEASURING SCALE OF INTELLIGENCE — a 30-item test designed to identify Parisian schoolchildren with 2. INTERPRETATION OF TEST FINDINGS intellectual disabilities — his findings suggested that a large percentage of immigrants, — underwent multiple revisions and translations, pivotal in particularly from certain nationalities, were mentally deficient intelligence testing and clinical testing movements or feebleminded based on the test results — the test may not have adequately accounted for cultural and DAVID WECHSLER language differences, led to biased and inaccurate conclusions Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Scale — later renamed the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) 3. CONTROVERSIAL CONCLUSIONS — measure adult intelligence based on the capacity to act — Goddard's work became influential in shaping public purposefully, think rationally, and cope effectively with the perception and policy regarding immigration and eugenics environment — his findings were cited as evidence to support restrictive immigration policies and sterilization programs aimed at limiting GROUP INTELLIGENCE TESTS the reproduction of individuals deemed “feebleminded” or — originated in response to the military's need to efficiently screen mentally deficit the intellectual ability of World War I and World War II recruits ARMY ALPHA TEST – written exam given to the literate, tested 4. EUGENIC VIEWS things like the ability to follow directions, arithmetic, analogies — Goddard's work aligned with eugenic (advocating selective ARMY BETA TEST – given to the illiterate, used pictures and breeding and controlling reproduction based on perceived symbols to test things like identification of patterns and picture intelligence) ideas that were prevalent during that period completion — his research justified discriminatory practices and policies 5. CULTURAL AND ETHICAL CONCERNS THE MEASUREMENT OF PERSONALITY — lack of sensitivity to cultural and ethnic differences — potential for biased interpretations of intelligence test scores Public interest in intellectual ability tests led to the — raised ethical concerns about the misuse of psychological development of various other psychological tests in the early 20th assessments and their potential to perpetuate harmful century. By the late 1930s, around 4,000 psychological tests were available, stereotypes and "clinical psychology" became synonymous with "mental testing." ROBERT S. WOODWORTH — psychologist — chaired a committee tasked with creating a measure of adjustment and emotional stability for recruits PERSONAL DATA SHEET – they developed experimental versions of paper-and pencil psychiatric interviews WOODWORTH PSYCHONEUROTIC INVENTORY – created after the war, first widely used self-report measure of personality Kristine Abegael Page 5 of 14 Psychological Assessment – PSYCH08L SOME ISSUES REGARDING CULTURE AND ASSESSMENT LECTURE: Lesson 2 Part 1 COMPONENTS OF TEST DEVELOPMENT RESEARCH ❖ Communication between the assessor and the assessee is a fundamental aspect of the assessment process. Apply APA 7th Edition Formatting guidelines to effectively ❖ Assessors need to be aware of any language or dialect differences write test development research. between themselves and the assessees. They should use language that is familiar and understandable to the assessees to ensure FONT accurate communication. — a variety of fonts are permitted in APA style papers ❖ Cultural sensitivity is essential in assessment. Assessors should sans serif fonts: 11-point Calibri, 11-point Arial, 10-point consider the extent to which the assessee has been exposed to the Lucida Sans Unicode dominant culture and how assimilated they are within that culture. serif fonts: 12-point Times New Roman, 11-point Georgia, 10- ❖ Verbal and nonverbal communication play significant roles in the point Computer Modern assessment process within a cultural context. ❖ Nonverbal cues, such as body language and facial expressions, can MARGINS convey important information and should be interpreted with — 1-inch margins on all sides cultural sensitivity. ❖ Assessors should be mindful of cultural norms that may influence SPACING communication patterns, such as eye contact, personal space, and — in general, double-space all parts of an APA Style paper: gestures. abstract, text, block questions, table and figure numbers, titles, ❖ Miscommunication or misunderstandings due to cultural differences notes, and reference list (including between and within entries) can impact the validity and reliability of the assessment results. — do not add extra space before or after paragraphs ❖ Cultural competence and awareness are essential for assessors to exclusions to double line spacing are as follows: conduct fair and unbiased assessments that consider the cultural Title Page: insert double-spaced blank line between the title background and context of the assessee. and the byline on the title page; double-space the rest of the ❖ The assessment enterprise faces a challenge in balancing test and title page assessment outcomes with cultural relativity. Tables ❖ It is important to consider the applicability of assessment findings to Figures specific individuals. Footnotes: use the default font settings (usually single-spaced ❖ Supplementing basic questions about a person's abilities or traits and a slightly smaller font than the text) with additional inquiries can enhance the assessment process. Displayed Equations: permissible to apply triple- or quadruple- ❖ Questions should be raised about the appropriateness of the norms spacing in special circumstances, such as before and after a or standards used for evaluation. displayed equation ❖ The extent of the assessee's assimilation into the culture from which the test is drawn should be considered, as it may influence test results. PAGE HEADER ❖ Evaluators should inquire about the research supporting the test's — running head (for professional papers only) and page numbers applicability to the specific individual being assessed. ❖ Responsible test users are encouraged to critically evaluate REFERENCES AND CITATIONS assessment tools and outcomes in light of cultural considerations. — use proper APA in-text citations and a reference list STRUCTURE THE PAPER USING OUTLINED COMPONENTS THREE LEVELS OF TEST USER QUALIFICATIONS — each section builds a complete research paper while maintaining academic rigor and clarity LEVEL A — tests or aids that can adequately be administered, scored, and interpreted with the aid of the manual and a general orientation INTRODUCTION TO APA 7TH EDITION GUIDELINES to the kind of institution or organization in which one is working PURPOSE OF APA FORMATTING — e.g., achievement or proficiency tests — promotes clarity, organization, and credibility — ensures consistency across research disciplines LEVEL B — tests or aids that require some technical knowledge of test GENERAL FORMATTING RULES construction and use and of supporting psychological and — title in bold, centered educational fields such as statistics, individual differences, — subheadings organized using APA level headings psychology of adjustment, personnel psychology, and — proper citations for credibility and avoiding plagiarism guidance — e.g., aptitude tests and adjustment inventories applicable to normal populations LEVEL C — tests and aids that require substantial understanding of testing and supporting psychological fields together with supervised experience in the use of these devices — e.g., projective tests, individual mental tests Kristine Abegael Page 6 of 14 Psychological Assessment – PSYCH08L FORMAT LABORATORY: Lesson 1 Part 1 ETHICS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT 1. TITLE PAGE — introduces the paper and provides essential author information PRINCIPLE 1: — e.g., title, author, institutional affiliation, course name, RESPECT FOR THE DIGNITY OF PERSONS AND PEOPLES instructor name, submission date — most fundamental and universally found ethical principle RESPECT FOR DIGNITY – recognizes the inherent worth of all human 2. ABSTRACT beings, regardless of perceived or real differences — summarizes the research — this inherent worth means that all human beings are worthy of — e.g., background, methods, results, conclusion equal moral consideration — all human beings are interdependent social beings 3. INTRODUCTION — includes moral consideration — sets the stage for the study — e.g., background, problem statement, objective PRINCIPLE 2: COMPETENT CARING FOR THE WELL-BEING OF PERSONS AND 4. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE PEOPLES — provides theoretical framework and empirical grounding — involves working for their benefit and, above all, doing no harm — e.g., theoretical framework, empirical studies, gaps — maximizing benefits, minimizing potential harm, and offsetting or — tip: organize by themes correcting harm — requires the application of knowledge and skills that are 5. PURPOSE AND OBJECTIVES appropriate for the nature of a situation — purpose: the study aims to develop and validate a culturally — requires the ability to establish interpersonal relationships that inclusive scale for academic stress enhance potential benefits and reduce potential harm — objective: to identify key dimensions of academic stress — covers the delivery of psychological services using online modalities (telepsychology) 6. METHOD — details the research process PRINCIPLE 3: — e.g., participants, measures, procedure, data analysis INTEGRITY — vital to the advancement of scientific knowledge and to the 7. RESULTS maintenance of public confidence in the discipline of psychology — objectively present findings — based on honesty, and on truthful, open and accurate communications 8. DISCUSSION — includes recognizing, monitoring, reporting, and managing — interprets findings and connects them to the theoretical potential biases, multiple relationships, and other conflicts of framework interest that could result in harm and exploitation of people — e.g., key findings, implications, limitations — complete openness and disclosure of information must be balanced with other ethical considerations, including the need 9. CONCLUSION to protect safety or confidentiality, and the need to respect — summarizes the study’s contributions cultural expectations 10. REFERENCES PRINCIPLE 4 — lists all sources cited PROFESSIONAL AND SCIENTIFIC RESPONSIBILITIES TO SOCIETY — psychology functions as a discipline within the context of 11. APPENDICES human society — include supplementary materials — it has responsibilities to society as a science and profession — e.g., drafted scale items, consent form template — include contributing to the knowledge about human behavior and to people’s understanding of themselves and others, and using such knowledge to improve the condition of individuals, PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: CONNECTING RESULTS TO families, groups, communities, and society THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK — conducting its affairs within society in accordance with the highest ethical standards Theoretical Implications: — encouraging the development of social structures and policies "Findings confirm that academic stress factors align with that benefit all people transactional theory, particularly in appraising stressors." Practical Implications: A. BASES FOR ASSESSMENT "Intervention programs can focus on reducing emotional exhaustion by teaching coping strategies." 1. The expert opinions that we provide through our recommendations, reports, and diagnostic or evaluative statements are based on substantial information and appropriate assessment techniques. 2. We provide expert opinions regarding the psychological characteristics of a person only after employing adequate assessment procedures and examination to support our conclusions and recommendations. 3. In instances where we are asked to provide opinions about an individual without conducting an examination on the basis of review of existing test results and reports, we discuss the limitations of our opinions and the basis of our conclusions and recommendations. 4. Test results obtained from teleassessment procedures can be used as basis for making decisions about clients or test takers as long as these are administered by qualified professionals, following prescribed assessment standards. Kristine Abegael Page 7 of 14 Psychological Assessment – PSYCH08L B. INFORMED CONSENT IN ASSESSMENT G. EXPLAINING ASSESSMENT RESULTS 1. We gather informed consent prior to the assessment of our clients except 1. We release test results only to the sources of referral and with written for the following instances: permission from the client if it is a self-referral. a. when it is mandated by the law 2. Where test results have to be communicated to relatives, parents, b. when it is implied such as in routine educational, institutional or teachers, we explain them through a non-technical language. and organizational activity 3. We explain the findings and test results to our clients or designated c. when the purpose of the assessment is to determine the representatives except when the relationship precludes the provision of individual’s decisional capacity. an explanation of results, and it is explained in advanced to the client. 4. When test results need to be shared with schools, social agencies, the 2. We educate our clients about the nature of our services, financial courts or industry, we supervise such releases. arrangements, potential risks, and limits of confidentiality. In 5. When explaining test results online, clients may request the instances where our clients are not competent to provide psychologist or psychometrician if the session can be recorded. informed consent on assessment, we discuss these matters with immediate family members or legal guardians. H. TEST SECURITY 3. In instances where a third-party interpreter is needed, the confidentiality of test results and the security of the tests must be ensured. The The administration and handling of all test materials (manuals, limitations of the obtained data are discussed in our results, keys to correction, answer sheets, reusable booklets, tests administered conclusions, and recommendations. online, etc.) shall be handled only by qualified/licensed users or personnel. 4. In teleassessment, we inform test takers of the implications of poor internet connectivity during the test-taking session on their test I. ASSESSMENT BY UNQUALIFIED PERSONS performance, particularly for timed assessments 1. We do not promote the use of assessment tools and methods by unqualified people except for training purposes with adequate C. ASSESSMENT TOOLS supervision. 2. We ensure that test protocols, their interpretations and all other 1. We judiciously select and administer only those tests which are records are kept secured from unqualified persons. pertinent to the reasons for referral and purpose of the assessment. 3. As psychometricians, we practice under the boundaries prescribed 2. We use data collection, methods and procedures that are consistent in RA10029. We operate under the supervision of a registered with current scientific and professional developments. psychologist, when applicable. 3. We use tests that are standardized, valid, reliable, and have normative data directly referable to the population of our clients. 4. We administer assessment tools that are appropriate to the language, J. TEST CONSTRUCTION competence and other relevant characteristics of our client. 5. We use only original copies of test materials (not photocopies). We develop tests and other assessment tools using current scientific findings and knowledge, appropriate psychometric properties, validation, and standardization procedures. D. OBSOLETE AND OUTDATED TEST RESULTS 1. We do not base our interpretations, conclusions, and RIGHTS OF TEST-TAKERS recommendations on outdated test results. 2. We do not provide interpretations, conclusions, and 1. right to be informed of their rights and responsibilities as test-takers recommendations on the basis of obsolete tests. 2. right to be treated with courtesy, respect, and impartiality, regardless of their age, disability, ethnicity, gender, national origin, race, religion, sexual orientation, or other personal characteristics E. INTERPRETING ASSESSMENT RESULTS 3. right to be tested with measures that meet professional standards that are appropriate for the test use and the test taker 1. In fairness to our clients, under no circumstances should we report 4. right to be informed, prior to testing, about the test's purposes, the the test results without taking into consideration the validity, nature of the test, whether test results will be reported to the test reliability, and appropriateness of the test. We should therefore takers, and the planned use of the results indicate our reservations regarding the interpretations. 5. right to be informed in advance when the test will be administered, if 2. We interpret assessment results while considering the purpose of and when test results will be available, and if there is a fee for testing the assessment and other factors such as the client’s test taking services that the test takers are expected to pay abilities, gender, characteristics, situational, personal, and cultural 6. right to have their tests administered and interpreted by appropriately differences trained individuals 7. right to be informed about why they are being asked to take particular tests, if a test is optional, and what the consequences are should F. RELEASE OF TEST DATA they choose not to complete the test 8. right to receive a written or oral explanation of their test results within 1. It is our responsibility to ensure that test results and interpretations a reasonable amount of time after testing and in commonly are not used by people other than those explicitly agreed upon by the understood terms referral sources prior to the assessment procedure. 9. right to have the results of tests kept confidential to the extent 2. We do not release test data in the forms of raw and scaled scores, allowed by law client’s responses to test questions or stimuli, and notes regarding 10. right to present concerns about the testing process and to receive the client’s statements and behaviors during the examination unless information about procedures that will be used to address such regulated by the court. concerns Kristine Abegael Page 8 of 14 Psychological Assessment – PSYCH08L LABORATORY: Lesson 1 Part 2 KEY FACTORS TO REMEMBER: PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT AND REPORT WRITING EXPLICIT AND IMPLICIT REFERRAL QUESTIONS I. PREPARING TO CONDUCT A PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT: There are often implicit as well as explicit referral questions. INTRODUCTION EXPLICIT REFERRAL QUESTION – the one first indicated by the referral source Psychological assessment, in contrast to psychological testing, — If the explicit referral question does not make sense, it is is concerned with the clinician who takes a variety of test scores, generally essential to keep looking for the implicit or hidden questions obtained from multiple test methods, and considers the data in the — it is easy to misunderstand the reason for a referral context of history, referral information, and observed behavior to — must keep an open mind and use due diligence to ensure that understand the person being evaluated, to answer the referral questions, he fully understands the purpose of the assessment and then to communicate findings to the patient, his or her significant others, and referral sources. KEY TASKS IN IDENTIFYING THE AUDIENCES FOR THE REPORT: Define the primary audience for the report by occupation and by Joseph D. Matarazzo (1990), then president of the American relationship with the client. Write the report with these people in Psychological Association, noted in his presidential address that mind, imagining their needs and the language and concepts that will “assessment of intelligence, personality, or type or level of impairment is a be most meaningful to them. highly complex operation that involves extracting diagnostic meaning Anticipate any secondary audience for the report. Do not direct the from an individual’s personal history and objectively recorded test scores” report to these audiences, but include information that denotes the purpose of the assessment and its procedures, and make sure to use language and concepts in the report that are accessible to all DIFFICULTY IN MASTERING PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT Students need to know the following: WHAT IS CULTURAL COMPETENCE? Test and measurement theory The specifics of administering, scoring, and interpreting a CULTURAL COMPETENCE variety of tests — According to Sue and Sue (2013), cultural competence for Theories of personality, development, and abnormal behavior mental health consists of three components: Details related to the purpose and context of the evaluation, a. cultural self-awareness such as legal issues in a forensic evaluation or special b. knowledge of diverse cultures education regulations in an assessment for a school c. culturally appropriate clinical skills How to conduct an interview and mental status examination What to look for when they observe the client’s behavior a. CULTURAL SELF-AWARENESS The legal and ethical regulations governing their work — occurs when the clinician becomes more informed about her own cultural background and the subsequent influence it might Additionally, the evaluator needs to know the following: have on her clinical work What to ask the referring party, and what to tell about the e.g., recognizes the legitimacy of everyone’s experience of the evaluation process world, and realizes that differences between individuals are not How to develop rapport with the client necessarily deficiencies that need to be addressed What to ask in the interview and how to ask it — enables a clinician to realize that his way of understanding the How to choose which tests to administer and strategies for world—including the ways that people develop and should try administering the tests to someone who may have significant to overcome psychological problems—is not shared by everyone deficits else How to interpret test results and integrate test results with e.g., understands that each person lives within the context of a other information in order to address referral questions cultural group, the values and lifestyle of which may vary from How to develop suitable recommendations that of the clinician’s own How to write a formal report and provide feedback to client b. KNOWLEDGE OF DIVERSE CULTURES A MODEL FOR PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT — simply means that the clinician should have some expertise about the cultural background of his or her clients — cultural knowledge involves an understanding of the day-to- day experiences of members of a particular group, as well as norms in terms of behaviors, beliefs, and roles — also has a historical component that should not be overlooked c. CULTURALLY APPROPRIATE CLINICAL SKILLS — involve what the clinician actually does with the client (which is heavily influenced by the two components of cultural competence already discussed, cultural self-awareness and knowledge of diverse cultures) — techniques that a clinician chooses should be in harmony with the way that client lives, believes, and interacts An assessment is not completed in a vacuum. The context of a case makes it unique, and the psychologist’s understanding of the context gives the assessment relevance. Kristine Abegael Page 9 of 14 Psychological Assessment – PSYCH08L GUIDELINES FOR INTERPRETATION LABORATORY: Lesson 2 Part 1 1. Avoid overgeneralization of test scores; instead, integrate PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT AND REPORT WRITING: findings across all sections of the report DATA COLLECTION TECHNIQUES 2. Consider the client’s presenting concerns, symptoms, and history when interpreting results. DATA COLLECTION 3. Look for patterns or discrepancies between different — an important first step in psychological assessment assessment methods. — involves gathering relevant information that informs the diagnosis and treatment process — effective data collection techniques ensure that psychological HOW TO WRITE PSYCHOLOGICAL REPORTS reports are grounded in accurate and comprehensive information Writing psychological reports involves translating assessment data into a comprehensive and clear document that communicates 1. CLINICAL INTERVIEWS findings to other professionals (e.g., therapists, doctors) or clients. — one-on-one discussions between the examiner and the client — can be structured (using predetermined questions) or Be Objective and Clear – Use professional, neutral language. Avoid unstructured (open ended, conversational) subjective statements or biased language. structured interview – ensures consistency Ensure Logical Flow - Organize the report in a clear, structured manner. unstructured interview – allows more flexibility Each section should logically follow from the previous one, leading to a conclusion. 2. PSYCHOMETRIC TESTS Provide Evidence for Claims - Support all findings and conclusions with — standardized tests used to assess various psychological traits, data, observations, and relevant test scores. including intelligence, personality, and emotional functioning Use Clinical Reasoning - Consider the broader context when discussing — provide objective data that complements subjective clinical findings. Avoid jumping to conclusions without sufficient observations evidence Use Past Tense - Since the assessment is complete, write about the 3. BEHAVIORAL OBSERVATION client's behavior and responses in the past tense (e.g., "The — involves the examiner observing the client’s behavior in a client reported…"). structured setting Remain Objective - The report should focus on presenting facts rather — valuable when assessing things like social interactions or than personal opinions. Avoid making assumptions or emotional responses to stimuli judgments about the client’s behavior 4. QUESTIONNAIRES AND SURVEYS Key Tips: — self-reports or other standardized instruments that assess a Avoid jargon or overly complex language that may confuse range of psychological variables like stress, depression, anxiety, non-professionals. or quality of life Write with the target audience in mind (e.g., other clinicians or the client). 5. COLLATERAL INFORMATION Keep the report concise but comprehensive, ensuring all — information gathered from people close to the client, such as relevant aspects are covered. family members, friends, or teachers — provide additional insight into the client’s behavior and history INCLUDING VERBATIM STATEMENTS IN THE REPORT BEST PRACTICES: 1. Use multiple data collection methods to triangulate information VERBATIM STATEMENTS for a more accurate assessment. — direct quotes from the client 2. Ensure all instruments used are standardized, valid, and reliable — offer valuable insight into their thoughts, feelings, and experiences for the purpose of the evaluation. — these should be integrated thoughtfully to enhance the 3. Maintain client confidentiality and ensure informed consent for understanding of the client’s situation any data collection. Use quotes in sections like Reason for Referral, Mental Health and Well-being, and Behavioral Observations INTERPRETING ASSESSMENT RESULTS HOW TO INTEGRATE QUOTES: Use Quotation Marks - enclose the client’s exact words in quotation marks Once data is collected, the next step is interpretation. — e.g., “The client expressed feeling trapped, saying, ‘I just don’t Interpreting assessment results requires the clinician to carefully analyze know how to move forward.’” the data from various sources (tests, interviews, observations, etc.) and Provide Context – ensure that each verbatim quote is placed in context, identify patterns, inconsistencies, and areas of concern helping the reader understand its significance — e.g., “The client’s comment, ‘I just don’t know how to move SCORES INTERPRETATION forward,’ reflects their sense of helplessness, which may align — standardized tests yield numerical scores that are compared to with their reported symptoms of depression.” established norms Be Selective with Quotes – they should not overwhelm the report. Choose — clinicians interpret these scores within the context of the quotes that are most significant and help to illustrate key individual’s background and current circumstances points of the assessment — e.g., high or low scores on a personality test should be viewed through the lens of the client’s life history, not in isolation DESCRIBING EMOTIONAL RESPONSES OR BEHAVIORS If a client’s emotional response or behavior is particularly CONSIDERATION OF CONTEXT notable (such as crying, fidgeting, or avoiding eye contact), include a — consider the cultural, developmental, and environmental factors verbatim description to highlight the emotional context. that may influence results e.g., “When discussing her family, the client became tearful and — e.g., a client from a different cultural background may interpret stated, ‘I don’t know how to forgive them.’” questions differently or exhibit behaviors that are culturally appropriate but might appear atypical in another context CORRELATING INFORMATION FROM DIFFERENT SOURCES INTEGRATION OF DATA — combine all sources of data to form a cohesive understanding of The report should weave together data from multiple sources of the client’s psychological state information, such as interviews, psychometric tests, and collateral — aligning the results of psychometric tests with behavioral information, to form a comprehensive understanding of the client. observations and interview content Correlating information from these sources allows you to provide a well-rounded view of the client’s mental health and functioning. Kristine Abegael Page 10 of 14 Psychological Assessment – PSYCH08L HOW TO CORRELATE INFORMATION EFFECTIVELY: IV. BACKGROUND INFORMATION 1. Combine Test Results and Interview Data — provide a brief overview of the client’s personal background, — use the interview findings in conjunction with test scores to including their current situation, history, and any relevant present a fuller picture of the client’s issues medical or psychological details — e.g., if a client reports significant anxiety during the interview How to Present: Focus on the client’s current living situation, occupation, and also has elevated anxiety scores on a psychometric test, and any past psychological or medical issues that may impact this should be noted as a correlation the assessment. Include family dynamics or any history of mental health treatment that is pertinent to the evaluation 2. Support Observations with Test Results — if there are notable behavioral observations (e.g., the client V. CASE HISTORY seems particularly anxious or withdrawn), these should be — a detailed exploration of the client’s background is presented, linked to corresponding test results to validate the including their cultural and ethnic background, developmental observations history, and major life events — e.g., if a client shows signs of anxiety during the interview, the test results may corroborate this VI. BEHAVIORAL OBSERVATIONS — includes the examiner’s observations and mental status 3. Use Collateral Information examination of the client during the assessment, covering — collateral information, such as feedback from family or friends, general appearance, behavior, speech, and cognitive can help provide additional context to the client's reported functioning experiences How to Present: Include observations related to the client's mood, — this should be presented as complementary information to appearance, and behavior during the assessment process. what the client shared Example: “The client appeared well groomed and maintained — it can either support or contrast with the client’s self-reports, good eye contact. They were oriented to time, place, and offering a fuller understanding person. STRUCTURING THE REPORT AND CORRELATION INFORMATION ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS ACROSS SECTIONS Informed Consent Each section of the report should build upon the previous one, Purpose: Informed consent is the process by which clients are fully ensuring that all the collected data comes together to form a cohesive educated about the nature, purpose, and potential narrative about the client’s psychological state. When correlating consequences of the psychological assessment before they information, ensure that each section logically connects with the next. agree to participate. Confidentiality and Privacy WRITING A COHESIVE PSYCHOLOGICAL REPORT Purpose: Confidentiality is a fundamental ethical principle that ensures the protection of client information and respects their privacy Writing a psychological assessment report requires a rights systematic approach that brings together data from various sources. Through integrating verbatim statements, supporting observations with Competence of the Evaluator test results, and cross-referencing collateral information, the report can Purpose: The psychologist must possess the necessary qualifications, skills, provide a comprehensive and objective picture of the client’s mental and expertise to conduct the assessment and interpret the health. results accurately A well-written report should be clear, concise, and present the Avoiding Harm and Misuse of Results information in a way that is accessible to other professionals involved in Purpose: The assessment process and its results should not cause harm to the client’s care. the client, and the findings should be used for the client’s benefit Accurate Reporting and Interpretation of Results SECTIONS OF A PSYCHOLOGICAL REPORT Purpose: The psychological report must reflect the findings of the assessment accurately and honestly, without exaggerating or I. IDENTIFYING INFORMATION misinterpreting the data. — basic details about the client and the assessment process name Client’s Right to Access Their Report age Purpose: Clients have the right to review and understand the findings of date of birth their assessment sex name of examiner Avoiding Conflicts of Interest referred by Purpose: Evaluators must avoid situations where their objectivity may be How to Present: Include all relevant personal identifiers but avoid any compromised, or where their personal interests may interfere information that may violate confidentiality or privacy. Make with the assessment process. sure all data is accurate and up-to-date. Documentation and Record Keeping II. REASON FOR REFERRAL Purpose: Proper documentation ensures transparency, accountability, and — addresses why the client sought psychological help or was the ability to defend the assessment process and findings if referred for assessment needed — include both the referring individual’s and institution's reason as well as the client's own description of the issue How to Present: Provide both objective and subjective reasons for the referral III. EVALUATION PROCEDURES — list all the methods and instruments used during the assessment — may include structured or unstructured interviews, psychometric tests, observation, etc. How to Present: Mention the names of tests, the purpose of each test, and the dates they were administered. Example: “The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS-IV) was administered to assess cognitive functioning on [date].” Kristine Abegael Page 11 of 14 Psychological Assessment – PSYCH08L JEAN PIAGET LABORATORY: Lesson 2 Part 2 — intelligence may be conceived of as a kind of evolving biological INTELLIGENCE AND ITS MEASUREMENT: adaptation to the outside world WHAT IS INTELLIGENCE? — as cognitive skills are gained, adaptation increases, and mental trial and error replaces physical trial and error Definitions of intelligence, or any other scientific concept, — the process of cognitive development occurs neither through undergo continual refinement. Better measures of intelligence generate maturation nor solely through learning better data, which can lead to refinement of definitions and theories of — as a consequence of interaction with the environment, intelligence, which, in turn, leads to better measures of intelligence and psychological structures become reorganized the cycle repeats. Although individuals can move through these stages at different A large group of intelligence researchers with diverse views rates and ages, he believed that their order was unchangeable. Piaget (Neisser et al., 1996) produced a widely cited, noncontroversial description of viewed the unfolding of these stages of cognitive development as the what scholars mean by intelligence. It consists of the ability to: result of the interaction of biological factors and learning. understand complex ideas adapt effectively to the environment Stages of Cognitive Development: learn from experience 1. Sensorimotor Stage engage in various forms of reasoning 2. Preoperational Stage overcome obstacles by taking thought 3. Concrete Operational Stage 4. Formal Operational Stage No scholar would assert that intelligence has nothing to do with learning, reasoning, and solving problems, though many would assert, in their ROBERT STERNBERG own way, that intelligence is much broader than just these things — proposed that certain mental mechanisms are required for intelligent behavior — emphasized that intelligence involves adaptation to the real- PERSPECTIVES ON INTELLIGENCE world environment — his theory emphasizes what he calls successful intelligence or 1. INTERACTIONISM “the ability to adapt to, shape, and select environments to — refers to the complex concept by which heredity and accomplish one’s goals and those of one’s society and culture” environment are presumed to interact and influence the TRIARCHIC (ruled by three) – deals with three aspects of development of one’s intelligence intelligence: 1. componential intelligence FRANCIS GALTON (1883) 2. experiential intelligence — beli