Cognitive Psych Notes PDF

Cognitive psychology: The study of **cognition;** how the mind encodes, stores, and uses\ information **How many hands did Aristotle have?** - Speech perception -- understood a request. Ex use of words (mouth patterns and sound/speech) - Object recognition -- recognized screen - Attent...

Cognitive psychology: The study of **cognition;** how the mind encodes, stores, and uses\ information **How many hands did Aristotle have?** - Speech perception -- understood a request. Ex use of words (mouth patterns and sound/speech) - Object recognition -- recognized screen - Attention -- shifted attention towards screen - Reading -- understood words and comprehended them - Memory retrieval -- searched memory for information on Aristotle - General knowledge (semantic memory) - Specific instances (episodic memory) - Judgement - "This seems silly, do I have to answer this?" - Reasoning -- never learned that he had two, so you infer that he has two - Speech production -- verbalized your response - Arrangement and pronunciation of words A Bit of History\ Behaviorists believed that all behavior could be explained by an organism's history of experiencing paired associations\ What stimuli were associated with other stimuli via classical conditioning\ Which behaviors had been rewarded and which had been punished\ Learned a great deal about learning and conditioning\ Still in use today -- Applied Behavior Modification\ -- (Psyc 220: Applied Behavior Analysis)\ But...\ A Bit of History: Limits of Behaviorism\ By the 1950's -- Limits of Behaviorism had become apparent\ -- Were able to explain quite a bit about learning and modifying behaviors\ -- But, without invoking mental events \-- couldn't explain all aspects of behavior\ Ex: Edward Tolman -- Rats learning a maze\ -- Behaviorists would say they rewarded for making a specific sequence of turns\ R L L R R L R R L R R L L R\ -- Tolman found evidence that rats developed "Cognitive Maps"\ -- Rats seemed to understand layout of maze\ Could go directly to reward from a novel starting point\ Performed sequence of behaviors they hadn't been rewarded for A Bit of History: Limits of Behaviorism\ By the 1950's -- Limits of Behaviorism had become apparent\ World War II -- practical problems related to attention and memory limitations\ -- Pilots and radar operators making errors and crashing planes\ memory and attention systems overwhelmed\ -- Attention and memory are mental phenomena\ behaviorism not useful here\ \ A Bit of History: Cognitive Revolution\ Chomsky (1959) -- Book critiquing behaviorism\ -- Skinner (1957) had written a book on language development\ Claimed that children learned rules of language through operant conditioning\ Rewarded for grammatically correct sentences; punished for incorrect sentences\ -- Chomsky argued behaviorism couldn't explain the development of language\ There wasn't enough systematic feedback for children to learn\ -- Children not always "corrected" for ungrammatical sentences\ -- Children produced novel sentences they had never heard before\ Argued that all humans are born with cognitive mechanism for learning language\ Which language was learned depended upon exposure\ \ Cognitive Psychology\ 1950's -- 1960's\ Psychologists started to examine mental events again\ -- Topics like attention and memory are no longer taboo\ -- But \-- Needed to be studied in an objective fashion (i.e., no more introspection!)\ Cognitive Psychology\ Aims to use objective measures of behavior to scientifically test how the mind\ encodes, stores, and uses information about the environment.\ \ The Study of Cognition\ The Mind as an Information Processor\ Mental life is all about information.\ -- Information permeates the social world and many fields of study.\ -- Cognitive psychology largely tries to understand the rules and systematic processes\ the mind uses to encode, transform, store, interpret, and act on information.\ \ The Study of Cognition\ The Mind as an Information Processor\ Representations are encoded and stored information about the environment\ Representations take a different physical form from original, but capture aspects of the\ original -- information about the original\ -- e.g., this picture is a visual representation of a tea kettle\ captures things like shape and color (but not weight or temperature)\ Cognition studies the nature of mental representations\ -- Mental representations are how your mind encodes and stores information about environment\ The Study of Cognition\ The Mind as an Information Processor\ Representations are distinct from, but intertwined with, the computations---the\ processing steps---performed on representations\ -- For example, in a digital picture, the "image" undergoes a series of transformations via computation\ -- Each representation of the original subject is in different form The Study of Cognition\ Representations\ Actual Event → Perceptual Representation → Memory Representation\ The Study of Cognition\ An Explanation of Cognition at Multiple Levels\ David Marr (1982) suggested that perception and\ cognition can be probed at three different levels:\ o The computational level of analysis seeks to\ understand what the mind is trying to compute and why.\ o The algorithmic level of analysis aims to understand\ the rules, mechanisms, and representations the mind\ uses.\ o The implementational level of analysis seeks to know\ what happens in the brain to enable cognition.\ \ Types of "data" examined in this course\ Cognitive Psychology:\ -- The attempt to uncover the nature of human cognition by observing people's\ behavior (typically speed and accuracy/errors)\ -- Behavioral measures used because we cannot directly observe mental processes\ -- Use observable behaviors to make inferences about mental processes\ Indirect measures of mental processes\ -- Mostly focused on the computational and algorithmic levels of analysis\ Types of "data" examined in this course\ Cognitive Neuroscience:\ -- The attempt to use information about behavior AND the brain to understand\ human cognition (various imaging techniques -- next chapter)\ -- Bridge the gap between the algorithmic and implementation levels of analysis\ How does the brain accomplish the different cognitive processes?\ \ Types of "data" examined in this course\ Cognitive Neuropsychology:\ -- The attempt to understand human cognition by studying brain-damaged patients\ (tests on neurologically impaired patients)\ -- Typically use case studies \-- individuals\ -- Bridge the gap between the algorithmic and implementation levels of analysis\ What happens of specific parts of the brain are damaged or missing?\ What computations or representations are lost?\ Behavioral Data and Cognitive Psychology\ Reaction Time (RT) -- how quickly someone performs a task\ -- Provides a measure of\ Difficulty (harder tasks take longer):\ -- 7 - 3 = ? Vs. 72 - 41 = ?\ Number of mental steps involved (more steps take longer)\ -- 8 x 4 = ? Vs. 88 x 44 = ?\ Interference in processing (conflicting information causes you to take longer}\ -- xxx xxxx xxxx xxxxxx xxxxxx vs. red blue green orange purple\ Accuracy (ACC) -- how many errors someone makes when performing task\ -- Similar to RT\ -- More difficult, more steps, more interference all can lead to more errors Behavioral Data and Models\ Problem:\ -- Can't observe mental events directly\ -- Can look at speed and accuracy with which people perform tasks\ Manipulate characteristics of the task to see if performance changes\ If so, try to devise a model of mental events that explain why manipulations\ affect performance\ -- Example:\ Breakfast today\ Breakfast yesterday\ Breakfast one week ago zhu zhu 25\ Types of Data: Reaction Time Example\ Flanker Task: Exploring Attention\ -- Identify center item (target)\ Ex: X or N\ Respond with key press (X = left key; N = right key)\ -- Ignore flanking items\ -- Manipulate (Independent Variables):\ Flankers compatible or incompatible with target\ Separation between target and flankers\ -- Measure (Dependent Variable):\ Reaction time to identify target Understanding Cognitive Psychology ---------------------------------- Storing Information: Can We Trust Our Memories? ----------------------------------------------- - **Memory Reliability**: - Memory is not always a faithful recording of experiences. - Recollections can contain false information due to suggestibility. - **Insight**: Memory can be deceptive, leading to false recollections. Understanding this helps in areas like eyewitness testimony where memory accuracy is critical. - **False Memories**: - Elizabeth Loftus' research highlights how easy it is to induce false memories. - **Additional Info**: Loftus' TED talk on memory reliability is a valuable resource for understanding this phenomenon. Using Information: Making Moral Decisions ----------------------------------------- - **Moral Decision-Making - The Trolley Problem**: - Scenario 1: You decide whether to switch a train to a track with one person instead of five. - Scenario 2: On a bridge, decide whether to push a man off to stop the train and save five but kill one. - **Insight**: Both scenarios present the same moral dilemma of action versus inaction, sparking debates on utilitarian ethics. - **Trade-offs**: - The scenarios illustrate the complexity of moral decisions, highlighting emotional and ethical dilemmas. - **Additional Info**: Moral philosophy often explores these dilemmas to understand justice and ethics. The Mind as an Information Processor ------------------------------------ - **Understanding the Mind**: - Cognitive psychology examines how the mind encodes, transforms, stores, interprets, and acts on information. - **Insight**: By viewing the mind as an information processor, psychologists can explore behaviors across various disciplines, including economics, medicine, and art. - **Analogy of Information Processing**: - Comparing digital camera processing to how the mind works, emphasizing processing rules over content. - **Additional Info**: This analogy helps in understanding cognitive functioning without being confounded by content variations. - **Information's Role**: - Information is pervasive in nearly every aspect of life, affecting mental and emotional states as well as behavior. - **Insight**: Understanding information processing contributes to identifying and addressing psychological disorders characterized by information processing abnormalities. Understanding these concepts in cognitive psychology helps in recognizing the limitations and potentials of human memory and decision-making, providing a foundation for further study into human behavior and mental processes. Cognitive Psychology: An Overview --------------------------------- Learning Objectives ------------------- 1. **Describe the types of topics cognitive psychologists investigate.** - Cognitive psychologists explore how the mind processes information. This includes attention, memory, perception, decision-making, and language. Understanding these topics can help in addressing real-world problems like improving educational systems and enhancing productivity in workplaces. 2. **Describe the precursors to the field of cognitive psychology as a science.** - Before cognitive psychology emerged as a distinct discipline, various fields such as philosophy, biology, and early experimental psychology laid the groundwork. Understanding these precursors provides insights into the development of cognitive theories and models. 3. **Discuss the emergence of the Cognitive Revolution and the developments that followed.** - The Cognitive Revolution marked a shift from behaviorist approaches to understanding internal mental processes. It emphasized the study of the mind using scientific methods, leading to advancements in artificial intelligence and cognitive neuroscience. 4. **Explain how cognitive psychology connects with other areas of research, both within and outside psychology.** - Cognitive psychology intersects with fields like neuroscience, computer science, and linguistics, contributing to innovations in AI, mental health treatments, and human-computer interaction. This interdisciplinary approach enriches our understanding of cognition. 1.1 The Study of Cognition -------------------------- - **Definition and Importance**: Cognitive psychology is a scientific study focused on how the mind encodes, stores, and uses information. It's crucial for explaining behaviors in everyday life, like studying for exams or making financial decisions. - **Historical Context**: The modern cognitive psychology era began with the first textbook in 1967. Earlier studies often isolated mental processes, but current approaches integrate them into broader, real-world contexts. - **Interdisciplinary Nature**: Cognitive science incorporates methods from psychology, neuroscience, computer science, and linguistics to understand how humans process information. - **Applications**: From understanding eyewitness reliability to improving financial decisions, cognitive psychology impacts numerous aspects of life. See for Yourself 1.1: Encoding Information - Selective Attention ---------------------------------------------------------------- - **Selective Attention**: The mind selectively processes portions of information, leading to what we perceive as a complete perception. However, much of the information is filtered out unconsciously. - **Inattentional Blindness**: This phenomenon occurs when an individual fails to notice an unexpected stimulus in plain sight, often due to the brain focusing on other tasks or stimuli. It highlights the limitations and focus of human attention. - **Example Activity**: The "Selective Attention Test" by Dan Simons on YouTube can be used to illustrate inattentional blindness. Seeing in this context involves understanding how vision and perception depend on attention alongside visual input. This section of cognitive psychology provides foundational knowledge for understanding how cognitive processes are intertwined with various psychological and practical domains, emphasizing the need for a comprehensive and interdisciplinary approach to studying the mind. Digital Conversion in Cognitive Processes ----------------------------------------- - **Figure Explanation**: - The process of turning light into a digital file is analogous to mental representation and processing in cognitive psychology. - **Stages**: 1. **Lens and Color Filter Array**: Represents the initial perception and encoding of information. 2. **Image Sensor and Analog Electronics**: Analogous to initial neural processing. 3. **Analog-to-Digital Converter**: Symbolizes the transformation of raw sensory data into digital formats, similar to cognitive processing. 4. **Image Processing**: Equates to further computations and mental transformations to make sense of data. 5. **Storage**: Relates to memory storage and retrieval processes. - **Insight**: This model shows cognitive psychology's focus on how the brain encodes, processes, and stores information. Such processes resemble how devices capture and process images, highlighting the structure of cognitive functions. Mental Representations ---------------------- - **Definition**: - Encoded and stored information about the environment. - Distinct yet intertwined with cognitive computations. - **Explanation**: Representation involves holding the information, while computation involves manipulating that information. Both are essential for a complete understanding of cognitive processes. Cognitive Processes ------------------- - **Processes and Representation Interaction**: - Processes encode, transform, and store information similarly to digital conversions, maintaining meaning. - Example: Money analogy illustrates different ways to represent changing value without altering core identity (cash, bank account). - **Insight**: Cognitive psychology explores how these representations change our understanding of the world and can vary with experiences or decisions. Cognition at Multiple Levels ---------------------------- - **David Marr's Theory**: - **Levels of Analysis**: 1. **Computational**: What the mind computes and why. 2. **Algorithmic**: Processes and steps used. 3. **Implementational**: Physical realization in the brain. - **Explanation**: Understanding cognitive functions benefits from exploring these different levels, offering a comprehensive view of the mental processes. - **Value of Multilevel Understanding**: - Just as in systems like cruise control, cognitive functions are better understood by examining what is computed, how, and the implementation details. - **Insight**: This multilayered framework aids in dissecting complex cognitive tasks and improving artificial intelligence systems by modeling them on human cognition. The Study of Cognition ---------------------- Understanding Computational Cognitive Processes ----------------------------------------------- - Cognitive psychologists aim to understand what information the mind processes and for what purpose. - **Insight**: This involves determining how the mind functions at a computational level, similar to how a car's computer calculates speed to maintain safety. - **Additional Information**: The mind processes information by building representations that help in interpreting the world. Example from Recent Journal --------------------------- - A study example is provided to illustrate cognitive challenges in reading. - **Task**: Understanding simple text requires identifying individual words, meanings, and making connections. - **Additional Insight**: This highlights the complexity of cognitive tasks like reading which might seem simple but require intricate mental processes. Identifying Individual Words ---------------------------- - Identifying words is crucial and challenging, requiring the differentiation of similar words (e.g., "jam" in context). - **Insight**: Words are building blocks of comprehension, and understanding their context is vital. - **Additional Information**: Contextual understanding is necessary because words can have multiple meanings. Understanding Word Meanings --------------------------- - Meanings of words must be contextualized. - **Insight**: Knowing the context helps in understanding words with multiple interpretations, such as "jam" in traffic versus fruit preserve. - **Additional Information**: Contextual processing is an advanced cognitive task needing attention to subtle linguistic cues. Causal Connections in Text -------------------------- - Making connections within and across sentences is essential for comprehension. - **Insight**: Recognizing pronouns and their references is part of understanding continuity in text. - **Additional Information**: This skill helps in information retention and making sense of overall narratives. Algorithmic Level of Analysis ----------------------------- - Research focuses on how the mind processes words and what computational mechanisms are involved. - **Insight**: This level seeks to determine how different word frequencies guide our reading. - **Additional Information**: Studies often use eye movement tracking to explore reading processes. Implementational Level of Analysis ---------------------------------- - This involves understanding the brain's physical processes for cognition. - **Insight**: Neural implementation of reading involves brain regions like the "visual word form area." - **Additional Information**: Understanding this level helps in diagnosing and addressing reading disabilities. Importance of Cognitive Processes --------------------------------- - Knowledge at multiple levels (computational and implementational) informs our understanding of human cognition. - **Insight**: A comprehensive view improves educational methods and cognitive therapies. - **Additional Information**: This holistic approach reflects the interdisciplinary nature of cognitive psychology, integrating neuroscience, computer science, and linguistics. Understanding Cognitive Psychology {#understanding-cognitive-psychology-2} ---------------------------------- Levels of Analysis in Cognitive Psychology ------------------------------------------ ### Three Levels of Analysis (Figure 1.2) 1. **Computational** - *Cruise Control:* What is cruise control trying to compute and why? - *Reading:* What skills are involved in reading development? 2. **Algorithmic** - *Cruise Control:* How does cruise control keep track of or adjust the car's speed? - *Reading:* How do changes in attention to words support development? 3. **Implementational** - *Cruise Control:* What circuits enable the onboard computer to adjust the car's speed? - *Reading:* What areas of the brain become more involved as children become better readers? Precursors to Cognitive Psychology ---------------------------------- ### Historical Context - Cognitive thinking traced back to philosophers like Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle who queried knowledge and perception. ### Ancient Beginnings - Early musings on cognition laid a foundation for modern cognitive psychology. - Experimental methods in the 19th and early 20th centuries marked its formal beginning, often considered the birth of cognitive psychology. ### Insights - Cognitive psychology didn't emerge suddenly but evolved over centuries. - Interdisciplinary developments contributed to its foundations, establishing methods now core to studying mental processes. Cognitive Psychology: Historical Perspectives and Foundations; Ancient Inquiry into Human Cognition --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- - **Historical Roots**: - Inquiry into human cognition dates back to ancient Greeks. - Example: Plato's dialogue "The Meno" explores the nature of knowledge through Socrates' discussions. - **Nature of Knowledge**: - Socratic method suggests innate knowledge. - Socrates guided a boy to solve geometric problems by suggesting the existence of inherent knowledge. ### Cognitive Development Insights - **Blank Slate Concept**: - Debated whether humans are born with innate knowledge or learn everything from scratch. - Relates to the "tabula rasa" theory, which argues that knowledge is gained through experience. Cognitive Psychology and Modern Development ------------------------------------------- - **Connection to Cognitive Psychology**: - Ancient theories anticipate modern cognitive inquiries. - Cognitive psychologists emphasized empirical methods, moving beyond philosophy. Advances in Infant Cognition ---------------------------- - **Infant Cognition Studies**: - Research by Wynn (1992) showed infants have innate mathematics understanding. - Infants detect numerical changes, suggesting inherent cognitive abilities. - **Implications**: - Supports the idea of predispositions in cognitive development. - Indicates that some cognitive skills may be biologically hardwired. Transition to Cognitive Psychology ---------------------------------- ### Psychological Science Before the Cognitive Revolution - **Pre-Revolutionary Psychology**: - Early psychological investigations lacked formal cognitive study methods. - Experimentalists focused on cognitive questions but not specifically as cognitive psychologists. - **Establishment of Scientific Psychology**: - Formalization attributed to Wilhelm Wundt's 1879 lab, considered the start of scientific psychology. - Early approaches differed significantly from modern cognitive psychology. ### The Cognitive Revolution - **Revolutionary Period**: - Mid-20th century marked a shift with a focus on internal mental processes. - Revolution driven by empirical research and theoretical frameworks. - **Reasons for the Cognitive Revolution**: - Recognition of the importance of scientific methods in understanding cognition. - Shift from solely behavioral approaches to exploring mental processes and structures. These notes explore the historical context and progression of cognitive psychology, emphasizing its foundations dating back to ancient philosophy and its eventual evolution into a formal scientific discipline. Von Helmholtz and Nerve Physiology ---------------------------------- - **Hermann von Helmholtz's Contributions**: - In the 1850s and 1860s, Helmholtz conducted experiments in nerve physiology that were crucial to psychology. - His work provided insights into how we perceive the world through different senses (e.g., sight vs. touch). - **Unconscious Inference**: - Proposed that perception involves an unconscious inference where the mind interprets sensory information. - This idea was similar to concepts drawn by the Arab scholar Ibn al-Haytham. - **Measuring Nerve Impulses**: - Helmholtz discovered that nerve impulses could be measured, laying groundwork for reaction time studies. - This opened the field to cognitive processes analysis. Donders and His Subtraction Method ---------------------------------- - **Franciscus Cornelius Donders' Hypothesis**: - Proposed in the 1860s that mental processes could be measured like nerve impulses. - The method focuses on isolating mental processes through reaction time differences. - **Subtraction Method**: - By comparing reaction times in different tasks, Donders believed one could infer the time different cognitive processes take. ### Additional Insights - Helmholtz and Donders' works laid foundational concepts in cognitive psychology, such as the importance of timing in neural and mental processes. - These early studies influenced the development of methodologies that are still used in cognitive science today. Foundations and Historical Context ---------------------------------- ### Introspection in Early Psychology - **Introspection**: Early psychologists used introspection to analyze their own mental experiences. However, this method was seen as subjective and unreliable by today's standards. - **Insight**: The introspective method struggled due to the lack of observable data, leading to the prominence of alternative, more objective methods during the mid-20th-century Cognitive Revolution. ### Behavioral Shift - **Behaviorism**: As psychology evolved, the emphasis shifted to observable actions, minimizing focus on inner thoughts. - **Insight**: Though behaviorism valued measurable data, it often ignored mental processes which limited insights into cognition. ### Cognitive Revolution - A move towards understanding internal processes, using scientific methods to study cognition, marking a significant shift from behaviorism. ### Challenges with Behaviorism - Despite methodological advances, frustrations grew with behaviorism due to its narrow approach, prompting new cognitive research approaches. Cognitive Researchers and Theories ---------------------------------- ### Weber and His Formula - **Ernst Weber**: Pioneered studies on stimulus perception, identifying the concept of "just-noticeable difference" (JND). - **Weber's Law**: Describes how a constant proportion of change in a stimulus is necessary for detection, crucial in understanding sensory limits. ### Fechner and Psychophysics - **Gustav Fechner**: Expanded upon Weber's work, integrating JND into broader laws of sensation and perception. - **Fechner's Law**: Explains that subjective sensation increases logarithmically with stimulus intensity, establishing psychophysics as a field. - **Insight**: Fechner's work underscored the possibility of quantifying mental processes, bridging physical stimuli with psychological experience. ### Contributions to Modern Psychology - The foundational work of Weber and Fechner laid the groundwork for modern cognitive psychology by linking physical stimuli with mental perception. Conclusion ---------- This material provides an overview of the evolution from introspection in early psychology to the emergence of cognitive psychology through the pivotal contributions of Weber and Fechner. It highlights key shifts and developments in the field, illustrating how past methodologies transitioned into more scientifically robust explorations of the mind. Cognitive Processes and Reaction Times -------------------------------------- - Cognitive processes can be studied through differences in reaction times for tasks. - Example: Repeating a sound versus choosing a correct response based on the sound. Faster reactions in known stimuli demonstrate the mental processes involved. **Insight:** Reaction time studies help in understanding cognitive processing stages. Donders' Subtraction Method --------------------------- - Donders' method isolates different cognitive processes by subtracting reaction times of simple tasks from complex tasks. - Limitations include assumptions like serial information processing. **Insight:** Despite assumptions, variations of this method provide insights into cognitive processing. The Pioneering Psychologists ---------------------------- - In 1979, psychologists celebrated the 100th anniversary of scientific psychology. - Wilhelm Wundt established the first psychology lab in 1879 at the University of Leipzig. **Insight:** This event marked psychology as a distinct scientific discipline. Wundt, Structuralism, and Introspection --------------------------------------- - Wundt aimed to identify structural components of consciousness. - Founded Structuralism, focusing on the structure of mental experiences. **Insight:** This approach parallels early physics, which identified basic physical elements. ### Introspection as a Method - Involves observing one's own experiences to understand consciousness. - Wundt critiqued the subjectivity and limitations of introspection. **Insight:** Reliable introspection requires training under strict conditions. Key Considerations ------------------ - Introspection's challenge lies in its subjective nature but can yield insights if properly controlled. - Understanding cognition continues to evolve through various methodologies and historical contributions. **Advantages:** Establishing foundational methods propelled psychology toward rigorous scientific inquiry. Precursors to Cognitive Psychology {#precursors-to-cognitive-psychology-2} ---------------------------------- Ebbinghaus: Pioneer of Memory Research -------------------------------------- - **Hermann Ebbinghaus**: A contemporary of Wundt, known for his rigorous experimental methodology in memory research. - **Contribution**: First to systematically study memory and forgetting using experimental techniques. - **Experiment**: Used "nonsense syllables" (e.g., "dax") to study memory, reciting them repetitively to understand retention and forgetting patterns. - **Significance**: - Developed the **forgetting curve**: shows how information is lost over time if no effort is made to retain it. - His work highlighted the importance of repetition and time intervals in retaining information. A Shift Away from Wundt's Structuralism --------------------------------------- - **Structuralism**: Focused on breaking down mental processes into their basic components. - **Criticism**: - Seen as too narrow and reductionist, ignoring the whole experience in favor of parts. - **Gestalt Movement**: A reaction against structuralism. - **Core Idea**: "The whole is other than the sum of its parts." - **Example Illustrated (Necker Cube)** : Demonstrates how perception can not be solely understood by its components. - **William James and Functionalism**: - **Focus**: On the purpose of mental processes in adapting to the environment, influenced by Darwin's theory of evolution. - **Functionalism vs. Structuralism**: - Emphasized processes/functions over elements. - Concerned with how mental processes help organisms adapt. Decline of Structuralism ------------------------ - **Introspection**: Previously a main method, later viewed as unreliable. - Lack of consistency and objective measurement led to criticism. - Shift towards more scientific and experimental methods in psychology. Additional Insight ------------------ - The transition from structuralism to functionalist and gestalt perspectives signaled a broader understanding of psychology, aligning with more scientific and adaptive approaches. - These changes laid the groundwork for modern cognitive psychology, focusing on complex mental functions and real-world applications. The Rise of Behaviorism ----------------------- - **Historical Context**: - Emerged after Wundt's influence in psychology waned, focusing on observable behavior to make psychology more objective. - Roots in frustration with introspection's subjectivity. - **Key Figure**: - **John Watson**: - Considered the father of Behaviorism, particularly after his 1913 manifesto, *Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It*. - Emphasized the exclusion of introspective methods, advocating for the study of observable and measurable behavior. - **Core Principles**: - Behaviorism relies on objective measurement as opposed to subjective mental processes. - Experiments primarily involved conditioned responses and avoided explanations that required introspection. Impact on Psychological Research -------------------------------- - Shifted focus from human introspection to animal studies to ensure objectivity. - Emphasized a unitary science of behavior, separating the roles of perception and language from traditional notions. Operant Conditioning -------------------- - **Concept**: - A subset of behaviorism focusing on learning via consequences of behavior. - **B.F. Skinner's Contributions**: - Developed the concept using methods like the "Skinner box," where animals press levers to receive food or avoid shocks. - Differentiates from classical conditioning (Pavlovian) by focusing on voluntary behaviors. - **Reinforcement**: - **Positive Reinforcers**: Increase likelihood of a behavior by providing desirable outcomes (e.g., food rewards). - **Negative Reinforcers**: Increase behavior by removing unpleasant outcomes. - **Punishment**: Aims to decrease behavior likelihood by introducing adverse outcomes. ### Model of Conditioning - **Classical Conditioning**: Associative learning involving automatic responses to stimuli (e.g., Pavlov's dogs). - **Operant Conditioning**: Involves voluntary behaviors and reinforcement/punishment (e.g., Skinner's experiments). Educational and Practical Implications -------------------------------------- - Influences teaching methods by emphasizing reinforcement to shape student behavior. - Widely applied in behavior therapy, helping modify maladaptive behaviors through structured reinforcement. These notes provide an understanding of behaviorism's role and influence in psychology, emphasizing the importance of observable behavior over introspection. Precursors to Cognitive Psychology {#precursors-to-cognitive-psychology-3} ---------------------------------- Behaviorism and the Role of Reinforcement ----------------------------------------- - **Paired Associations in Behaviorism** - Early behaviorists believed all behavior could be explained by an organism's experience with paired associations. - This perspective suggested that solving global issues could be achieved by exposing populations to the right combinations of reinforcements. - **B.F. Skinner's Views** - Skinner argued that society's problems could be solved through understanding and engineering systems of reinforcers and punishments. - His novel, *Walden Two*, imagines a utopian society structured around these principles, raising discussions on feasibility and ethical implications. Contributions and Criticisms of Behaviorism ------------------------------------------- - **Experimental Rigor and Methodology** - Behaviorism introduced robust experimental methods, focusing on observable behavior over internal mental processes. - This approach laid the groundwork for a scientific study of psychology. - **Limitations of Behaviorism** - The movement was dominant but did not last, as it failed to consider internal mental processes. - Cognitive Revolution shifted focus to these internal processes, marking a key evolution in psychology. Transition to Cognitive Psychology ---------------------------------- - **Influence of Functionalism** - Functionalism, influenced by William James, emphasized psychological processes' adaptive nature, complementing behaviorist ideas. - **John B. Watson's Perspective** - His statement emphasizing the power of environment over heredity resonated with the idea that behavior can be molded through external conditions. - **Emergence of Behavioral Neuroscience** - The intersection of behaviorism and neuroscience led to using animal models to understand neural mechanisms, contributing substantially to modern psychology. Cognitive Revolution -------------------- - **Shift in Focus** - The limitations of behaviorism became apparent, prompting a paradigm shift towards studying internal cognitive functions. - This shift rekindled the exploration of how the mind processes information, laying foundations for fields like artificial intelligence and modern educational psychology. The convergence of old philosophical views and new scientific methods in cognitive psychology highlights the intricate and multifaceted nature of human cognition. The Cognitive Revolution ------------------------ Overview -------- - **Time Period**: The 1950s and 1960s marked significant shifts in thought, termed the Cognitive Revolution. - **Key Development**: The period popularized the term "cognitive psychology" post-Ulric Neisser's 1967 book. Earlier contributions outlined ideas from an unpublished 1939 manuscript. - **Impact**: It catalyzed new ways to analyze human cognition, focusing on internal mental processes rather than behaviorist perspectives. Factors Contributing to the Revolution -------------------------------------- - **Behaviorism Limitations**: Behaviorism's inability to explain complex psychological phenomena pushed for advances in understanding the mind. - **Interdisciplinary Influence**: Developments in neuroscience, computer science, and linguistics provided new models for exploring cognition. - **Significant Works**: Howard Gardner's 1985 book, *The Mind's New Science*, provided an in-depth examination of these changes. Converging Strands of the Revolution ------------------------------------ - **Psychological Inquiry**: Driven by an urge to understand mental workings, psychologists transcended former boundaries, pioneering a more integrated scientific psychology. Chomsky and Verbal Behavior --------------------------- - **Critique of Behaviorism**: Noam Chomsky's 1959 critique of Skinner's *Verbal Behavior* emphasized language development's mental processes over pure behaviorist principles. - **Language Acquisition**: Argued that children's language development couldn't be fully explained by reinforcement, as seen in immigrant children learning languages faster than adults. - **Shift in Focus**: Highlighted mental processes essential for language acquisition, initiating a shift back to mental-focused psychology. Tolman and Cognitive Maps ------------------------- - **Research on Rats**: Edward Tolman's studies in the 1930s involved rats in mazes, suggesting mental representation not explained by pure behaviorist theories. - **Experiment Groups**: - **Group 1**: Received rewards, learned the maze fastest. - **Group 2**: Received no rewards, showed slower learning. - **Group 3**: Initially no rewards, then received rewards after 10 days; later demonstrated recognition and navigation, indicating cognitive mapping. - **Findings**: Suggested rats form cognitive maps of mazes beyond simple reinforcement. ### Additional Information - **Cognitive Maps**: Tolman's concept of cognitive maps refers to mental representations or spatial layouts enabling flexible navigation, even without direct, immediate reinforcement. - **Significance**: Such findings challenged predominant behaviorist views and supported a more complex understanding of mental processes in spatial learning. This summary provides a foundational understanding of the Cognitive Revolution and highlights pivotal studies and critiques that reshaped cognitive psychology. Cognitive Maps -------------- - **Concept of Cognitive Maps**: Introduced by Tolman in 1948. Refers to mental representations of physical locations, allowing for navigational tasks beyond simple motor responses linked to rewards. - **Insight**: This challenged behaviorist views, highlighting mental processes in learning. Shannon and Information Theory ------------------------------ - **Claude Shannon's Contribution (1948)** : Published "A Mathematical Theory of Communication", emphasizing optimal message transmission. - **Core Idea**: Focused on how information is encoded, transmitted, and reconstructed, laying the foundation for digital communication. - **Information Theory**: Centers on the quantification, storage, and communication of information. Crucial for advancements in data processing and telecommunications. Turing, Simon, Newell, and Artificial Intelligence -------------------------------------------------- - **Computational Approach to the Mind**: Inspired by Shannon's work, focusing on mental processes like encoding and applying information. - **Alan Turing's Turing Machine**: A conceptual device that performs calculations using simple operations on data symbols. - **Operations**: 1. Move the tape one cell to the right. 2. Move the tape one cell to the left. 3. Delete a symbol in a cell. 4. Write a new symbol in the cell. - **Significance**: Demonstrated that simple operations can solve any computable problem, foundational to computer science and AI. Insights and Implications ------------------------- - **Interdisciplinary Influence**: These developments underscored the shift from behaviorist frameworks to a cognitive approach, influencing fields like psychology, AI, and computer science. - **Impact on AI Development**: The blending of information theory and computational models paved the way for modern AI, emphasizing rule-based processing. Conclusion ---------- The cognitive revolution and contributions from Shannon and Turing bridged psychology with technology, highlighting the significance of internal mental processes in shaping human understanding and machine intelligence. Information-Processing Approach ------------------------------- Key Concepts ------------ - **Turing's Influence**: Turing advanced the idea of how information processing in machines could model human cognition, laying the groundwork for artificial intelligence (AI). - *Insight*: This concept helped develop computational modeling, which predicts human behavior through theoretical models. - **Early AI Development**: In 1956, Simon and Newell created Logic Theorist, an early AI program that solved mathematical proofs. - *Additional Info*: This innovation marked a significant advance in using computers to mimic human problem-solving processes, showcasing the potential of AI in cognitive tasks. - **General Problem Solver**: Developed to manage a variety of tasks, including chess and mathematical puzzles, illustrating the versatility of AI in cognitive challenges. - *Insight*: Highlighted the potential for AI to not only replicate but also enhance human cognitive abilities in problem-solving. Influence on Psychology ----------------------- - **Information-Processing Approach**: Emerged as central to psychology, emphasizing how humans process, store, and retrieve information. - *Insight*: This view parallels computer processing, reinforcing the study of mental activities like perception, attention, and memory. - **George Miller's Contribution**: Emphasized quantifying mental processes, famous for his paper on the magical number seven, which addresses the limitation of short-term memory. - *Additional Info*: His work prompted further exploration into cognitive limitations and efficiencies. Theories and Models ------------------- ### Donald Broadbent's Filter Model of Attention - **Selective Attention**: Focuses on the selective nature of attention, filtering inputs based on physical properties like pitch. - *Insight*: This model illustrates how attention is divided, reinforcing the understanding of cognitive load management. Notable Psychologists --------------------- - **Anne Treisman**: Modified Broadbent's model with the attenuation theory, suggesting that not all unattended messages are completely ignored but are reduced in strength. - *Insight*: This adjustment provides a more nuanced understanding of how we process unattended stimuli. - **Frederic Bartlett**: Conducted essential memory research, highlighting the reconstructive nature of memory. - *Additional Info*: Bartlett's work emphasized how cultural and context-specific factors shape memory recall. Conclusion ---------- Cognitive psychology draws heavily from computational models and information-processing frameworks to understand the mind. Early advancements in AI and theoretical models like Broadbent's and Treisman's have significantly influenced modern cognitive psychology, allowing for in-depth exploration of cognitive functions and processes. - Cognitive psychology is focused on understanding how information is absorbed, processed, and retained by the mind. - It overlaps with social and clinical psychology but focuses on mental processes like attention, memory, and decision-making. - **Interrelation with Other Fields**: - Cognitive psychology shares topics with fields like social cognition and clinical psychology, exploring how these areas inform mental health and social behavior. - **Recognition in the Field**: - Notable figures, like cognitive psychologist Daniel Kahneman, have been recognized for contributions, notably with a Nobel Prize in Economic Sciences. Cognitive Science and Cognitive Neuroscience -------------------------------------------- - **Historical Background**: - Cognitive science emerged in the mid-20th century as a multidisciplinary field connecting psychology, computer science, neuroscience, philosophy, linguistics, and anthropology. - It aimed at understanding the mind from various disciplinary perspectives. - **Influence and Evolution**: - Each discipline within cognitive science brought unique insights that enriched understanding in areas like brain functions and cognition. - **Key Concepts from Disciplines**: - **Computer Science**: Contributed to formal systems that aid understanding of complex cognitive processes. - **Linguistics and Psychology**: Collaboratively spurred fields like psycholinguistics and others exploring both cultural and biological impact on cognition. Diagram: Cognitive Science Structure ------------------------------------ - The schematic diagram demonstrates the interconnections between various fields: - **Philosophy** - **Psychology** - **Linguistics** - **Anthropology** - **Neuroscience** - **Computer Science** - These disciplines contribute to cognitive science by linking insights and methods, offering a holistic understanding of cognitive processes. Insights -------- - Cognitive psychology's focus on mental processes provides crucial insights into how humans understand, react, and adapt to their environment. The integration of disciplines within cognitive science enhances our capacity to explore and innovate within psychology. [Cognitive Psychology in Relation to Other Areas] ------------------------------------------------------------- Key Figures in Cognitive Psychology Development ----------------------------------------------- - **Jean Piaget**: - Pioneer in understanding children's cognitive development. - Explored how children's concepts and cognitive abilities evolve over time. - **Lev Vygotsky**: - Explored links between social and cognitive development in children. - Focused on the role of social interactions in cognitive growth. - **Alexander Luria**: - Studied relationships between cognitive processes and neural functions. - **Eleanor Rosch**: - Researched how people categorize the world. - Contributed to understanding cognitive categorization. - **Eleanor Gibson**: - Pioneered perceptual development research. - Studied how people extract information from their environment for decision making. Historical Context and Influences --------------------------------- - Developments in Europe and the US contributed significantly to cognitive psychology. - Contributions spanned diverse areas including social psychology and perceptual development. - Foundational research led to new methodologies and understandings of cognitive processes. The "Big Bang" of Cognitive Psychology -------------------------------------- ### The Symposium on Information Theory (1956) - Hosted at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). - Brought together influential figures: George Miller, Noam Chomsky, Allen Newell, Herbert Simon. - Marked a shift in cognitive psychology, emphasizing a coordinated approach across disciplines. ### George Miller's Insight - Recognized the intersection of experimental psychology, theoretical linguistics, and computer simulation. - Proposed these disciplines could unite for a comprehensive understanding of cognitive processes. Impact and Legacy ----------------- - The symposium catalyzed advancements in cognitive psychology. - It led to a flourishing of research and theory, impacting multiple fields. - This period is often termed as the cognitive psychology "Big Bang," promoting new perspectives and methodologies. Emotion in Cognitive Psychology ------------------------------- Role of Emotion --------------- - **Powerful Influence**: Emotions significantly affect how we experience the world and our behaviors. - **Historical Context**: Traditionally, cognitive psychology has placed less emphasis on emotion, often viewing it as secondary. - **Challenges in Study**: Emotions are complex and subjective, making them difficult to measure through traditional cognitive methods. - **Objective Measurement**: Unlike other cognitive phenomena, emotions are hard to verify with objective tools. Emotional Experience and Cognition ---------------------------------- - **Research Difficulties**: Understanding the impact of emotions like sadness involves varying subjective responses, complicating standard experimental design. - **Emotional Variability**: People's reactions to emotional stimuli can be unpredictable and vary widely. Cognition and Emotion Interconnection ------------------------------------- - **Cognitive and Affective Hypotheses**: - **Cognitive Primacy**: Suggests cognitive interpretations precede emotional responses (e.g., Lazarus). - **Affective Primacy**: Proposes emotions occur before cognitive processing (e.g., Zajonc). - **Recent Findings**: - **Interconnected Brain Regions**: Recent neuroscience reveals emotions and cognition are deeply intertwined within brain functions. - **Integrated Systems**: Emotions are not separate from cognitive functions but part of a cohesive system that influences perception and interpretation. Implications for Cognitive Psychology ------------------------------------- - **Emotion as Information**: Emotions provide valuable information that helps make sense of situations. - **"Bad Feeling" Hypothesis**: Even an uneasy feeling might offer insights into a situation, integrating emotions with cognitive evaluations. - **Continuous Integration**: - **Functionally Integrated Systems**: Brain functions related to emotion and cognition continuously interact, challenging the notion of distinct separation between them. The Link Between Cognition and Emotion -------------------------------------- - **Somatic Marker Hypothesis**: Suggests that physiological responses are linked to emotions, influencing decision-making. - **Insight**: Understanding how emotions guide decisions can improve emotional intelligence skills and mental health strategies. - **Theory of Constructed Emotions**: Emotions are not isolated processes but constructed based on context and experience. - **Additional Information**: This approach argues that we interpret emotions through our existing frameworks of understanding, impacting interpersonal relationships. The Legacy of the Cognitive Revolution -------------------------------------- - Neisser's 1967 textbook ("Cognitive Psychology") was a pioneer, emphasizing visual and auditory perception over memory and reasoning. - **Insight**: The redefinition of psychological focus during the Cognitive Revolution underscores the shift towards understanding complex mental processes. - Modern textbooks have expanded to include chapters on memory, reasoning, language, and decision-making. - **Additional Information**: This reflects the interdisciplinary nature of cognitive psychology, integrating findings from diverse fields like AI and neuroscience. Limitations of the Information-Processing Approach -------------------------------------------------- - The approach, while successful, can miss out on the meaning and context of cognitive activities. - **Insight**: Stressing the computational aspect might oversimplify human cognition, losing sight of qualitative experiences crucial in real-world settings. - **Bruner's Criticism**: Over-focus on computation neglects the influence of "meaning" in cognition. - **Additional Information**: This highlights the need to balance quantitative and qualitative approaches in cognitive studies. - Neisser voiced similar concerns, advocating for the relevance of cognition in everyday life. - **Insight**: Contextualizing cognitive research can make it more applicable and valuable in real-world applications such as education and therapy. Connecting Cognitive Processes with Real-World Applications ----------------------------------------------------------- Relevance of Criticisms in Cognitive Research --------------------------------------------- - **Resonance of Criticisms**: Despite advancements, criticisms of cognitive research remain relevant, urging further exploration of practical applications. - **Insight**: Continuous reflection and response to criticism enhance the validity and applicability of research findings. Bridging Research with Real-World Applications ---------------------------------------------- - **Connecting Cognitive Processes**: Researchers strive to link cognitive research with real-world implications and functions. - **Insight**: Applying cognitive theories to everyday contexts can lead to improved psychological interventions and educational strategies. Academic Support for Applied Research ------------------------------------- - **Journals and Societies**: The Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, Psychological Science in the Public Interest, and the Society for Applied Research in Memory and Cognition support such research. - **Additional Information**: These platforms provide a venue for disseminating research findings that bridge theory and practice. Interdisciplinary Connections ----------------------------- - **Cognitive Psychology and Other Fields**: There are significant intersections between cognitive psychology and other areas of research. - **Insight**: Collaborations across disciplines can generate innovative solutions and new insights into human cognition.