Cognition In Clinical Contexts Notes PDF

 Introduction - Week 1 Cognition which the input...

 Introduction - Week 1 Cognition which the input transformed reduced elaborated stored recovered & used Ulrich Neisser processes by = all sensory is , , , , , 1967 · "it's apparent that cognition is involved in everything a human being might possibly do ; that every psychological phenomenom is a cognitive phenomenon" · introspectionists studied interesting things , but w a poor methodology · behaviourists had a very strong methodology observable but studied less , interesting things theorists resurrected mental object of study but bit · gestalt processes as a viable were a vague · cognitive psychology began to emerge during the 1950's as computer systems gave psychologists a new metaphor for the mind · drawing on developments in communications technology & computing psychologists began , to view the mind as an info processing system mental processes intervene between the presentation of a stimulus & the production of a response · they operate on info which must be encoded in some forms symbolic representations they take time which is why cognitive psychologists' favorite DV information processing systems have a finite capacity · concepts such as storage retrieval transformation can be applied to info processed by brains & computers Importance of metaphors models scientific theories aim to be refutable can be proved to be wrong-behaviourism · hypotheses r evaluated using empirical data in controlled behavioural studies we can't look inside the mind to cognition introspectionists "see" · · cog. psych relies on analogy & models of cognition · models of cognition r evaluated against data& revised as necessary it's always necessary Methodological Approaches Experimental Psychology · psychological experiments w healthy humans & small · typically involve ! reasonably large sample sizes budgets · traditional inferential statistics used to determine success e Godden & Baddeley 1975 material learned while g diving is better recalled whilst diving. g e ·... , , Computational Modelling · computer simulations of cognitive processes usually involves experimental psych. · often involving parallel distributed processing PDP neural networks McClelland & Rumelhart's PDP model of word recognition. g e ·. Cognitive Neuropsychology Neuropsychiatry studying the consequences of brain damage psychiatric · disorders on cognitive function single cases can be important · associations dissociations used to reveal the "modularity of the mind" · e. g. dissociation between acquired dyslexia & acquired anomia Cognitive Neuroscience · studies how the brain implements cognitive functions , often using expensive neuroimagining technology · EEG , MEG TMS PET , , , fMRE · sophisticated techniques required to interpret data e r different regions of the brain involved when naming pictures & reading words ? yes. g ·. Top-Down vs. Bottom-up Processing info models often "bottom up" approach input proceeds through of stages until the required output processing assume a : a series processing is  produced e. g. looking at a low quality picture I not seeing a cow until hearing a due : 'Mood in reality "top down" influences r enormous but much harder to model e. g. goals , desires , plans etc. · eye movements reflect both-influenced both by external stimuli, e.. g a flashing light & , our current goals , e g.. watching football  Perception Object Recognition Perception ability to extract from sensory input = our meaning · includes audition taste touch&d faction smell , , , but research is dominated by vision · vision accounts for over 50 % of all neurons in our cortex is constructive a process The Visual System · a misleading oversimplification brain receives sensory input allowing us to perceive an object cognitive system constructs perception a Tootell et al., 1982 support the notion that a near perfect representation of the external world i s projected" onto our primary visual cortex 3 Stage Model Stage 1. local features Stage In Stage image edge detection contrast etc. shape representation gestalt principles feature integration object representation stored representations knowledge Gestalt Principles · the whole visual percept is more than the sum of its parts our perceptual system constantly tries to impose organisation on its input components of an image r grouped together on the basis of certain visual properties Shape Perception Marr 1982 , · primarily bottom up' processes produce a 'primal sketch · the sketch contains primitives' edges orientations positions lengths colours etc. top down' processes e. g Gestalt laws r used to collections of primitives together into 'lines curves larger blobs & small patches' symbolic primitives group groups -. , , , Template Matching · a template is an internal representation · a memory against which the visual input is matched · computer based object recognition programmes use templates intuitively plausible object recognition must involve some kind of contact w a 'comparable internal form' Feature Analysis · assumes lower lvl features r analysed first the perceptual system searches for simple but characteristic features of an object · supported by neurological evidence e g.. orientation selective cells in visual cortex most research focuses letter word on recognition · Recognition by Components · any specific view of an object can be represented as an arrangement of simple 3D shapes geons Biederman , 1987 · geons r 'viewpoint invariant - easilyrecoverable' from a 2D retinal image invariant properties' include cotermination A parallelism · object recognition is impaired when geons r made non-recoverable' by removing termination points  Bruce & Young's model Face Recognition · modular model in that different sub-functions r processed independently distinct pathways for recognising familiar faces etc vs recognising expressions. ·. · parallel pathways dealing w facial expression facial speech, I'visually derived semantic info' such , as sex , age , I race 1 different representations constructed for different purposes A for familiar vs. unfamiliar faces. 2 for recognition , a familiar face activates a "Face Recognition Unit" faces previously encountered 3 FRUs. r linked to "Person Identity Nodes" , gateways to semantic info abt the person linked to 4 PINs. r name generation Early evidence · memory loss diary study Young Hay , & Ellis 1985 , · person not recognised i. e. blanked · feeling of familiarity wo identity · person recognised but no name retrieved person misidentified · repetition priming found for familiarity decisions but not for gender expression decisions Ellis et al., 1990 · familiarity doesn't influence : · gender decisions Bruce 1986 , · expression analysis Young et al., 1986 - since disputed · humans can selectively attend to identify emotion in sorting tasks Etcoff , 1984 Neuropsychological support for parallelism double dissociation between the of facial expression & face recognition processing · · some have a deficit in identity but not expression Bruyer et al., 1983 & vice versa Humphery s et al 1993. for Neuro-imaging support parallelism · different cortical sites r active in the processing of identity vs. emotion · Sergent et al., 1992 vs. Posamentier & Abdi , 2003 Semantic Priming a face is responded to faster if it follows a closely related face. e Prince Charles followed by Diana compared to an unrelated face Bruce & g =. Valentine , 1986 IAC Model = Interactive Activation & Competition · McClelland 1981 proposed parallel distributed networks that have interactive activation A competition built in as basic processes · semantic info is 'pooled' knowledge is represented in pools · relationships between different bits of knowledge r represented in the connections between the pools · connections within a pool r mutually inhibitory · connections between pools r mutually faciliatory Burton , Bruce & Johnston 1990,. FRU 1 activated. 2 inhibits others in the pool 3. activation spreads along connections · FRU-PIN -semantic info input etc. · name 4. inhibitory connections within pools r activated 5 PENS. can be partially activated through shared semantics. 6 activity can spread from PENS facilitating semantic priming even across modalities Recognising faces human beingsa exceptionally capable of recognising individual faces · the challenge of reliably individuating faces is made apparent by the fact that all faces share a basic configuration · every individual face consists of facial features such as eyes , nose , I a mouth that have the same first-order relations such as 2 eyes above a nose A mouth although these features rample for rendering the percept ofa face , they r wholly inadequate in rendering a percept ofthat' face while there r instances of features that r rather distinctiveA sufficiently accurate in signaling the identity of an individual they , r rare it has been suggested that the efficacy of face coding for the of recognition must exploit 2nd-order relations the fine-grained spatial i · purposes.e. interrelationship between 'features' · Hole , George , Eaves & Rasek 2000 stretching squashing shearing , , alter 2nd-order relationships but faces remain easily identifiable · Hole , George & Dunsmore 1999 negative facesr very difficult to recognise despite configural info Location of face processing · face processing is widely distributed · core aspects of face recognition r localisable in the superior temporal sulcus A the inferior temporal cortex face selective neurons r present Hierarchical Accounts of processing · cells in the inferior temporal cortex r selective to complex stimuli giving credence to hierarchical theories of object perception · early visual cortex codes elementary features, e g. line orientation & colour. , outputs r combined to form detectors of higher-order features ,. e g. corners or T-junctions cells , at the highest IvI in the hierarchy code specific shapes , e g.. hands faces  Agnosia & Prosopagnosia Agnosia · typically occurs after damage to the occipital inferior temporal cortex · "the impairment of visual object recognition in ppl who possess sufficiently preserved visual fields, acuity sharpness keeness of thought, vision , or hearing d other elementary forms of visual ability to enable object recognition , I in whom the object recognition impairment can't be attributed to... loss of knowledge abt objects " Farah 1999 , different types of agnosia reveal important dues concerning the processes underlying object recognition Apperceptive Agnosia able to move abt negotiate obstacles wo difficulty · their grasp reveals knowledge of size & shape Goodale & Milner , 2004 · low-lul binding of feature appears to be absent unable to perform basic copying A matching tasks damage to stage 2 shape features Associative Agnosia · copying& matching skills r unimpaired patient unable to name the object despite intact knowledge involves a failure in accessing knowledge abt the objects Prosopagnosia = profound loss in ability to recognise faces usually due to a right inferotemporal lesion · though unable to recognise previously familiar faces via visual input recognition by , other modalities remains intact individuals can be identified by their voices tested through overt behavioural the ability to recognise faces is measures · · peak skin conductance responses SCRs occur 1-5secs after a face has been presented peak amplitudes , r larger for a familiar relative to an unfamiliar face Tranel et al , 1985 have been observed for similar patterns prosopagnosic patients Ellis et al 1993 ·., Capgras delusion = patients recognise a face d yet deny the identity of the individual · e. g. Alan Davies after a car crash insisted that his wife died in the crash & that the woman living whim was an imposter Routes to recognition · yellow route is the covert dorsal route through the superior temporal sulcus A inferior parietal lobe red route is the overt ventral route loss in the ventral stream result in can prosopagnosia loss in the dorsal stream can result in Capgras delusion  Perception is a Brain Process Synaesthesia to neural · eyes , e a rs , nose , mouth & skin have receptors that convert physical signals signals · the brain perceives the world based on info from each sense d from info from different senses & from stored knowledge of the world physical world not the as the perceived world e. visual A auditory illusions. g same ·. Multi-Sensory Perception the which info from different brought together process by senses is = · more efficient& accurate than processing each sense separately · enables us to establish a single coherent perspective of the world · enables us to act on the world The McGurk Illusion 'BA' is 'GA' is presented to ears , presented to eyes - subject perceives 'DA' fMRI shows that silently looking at moving lips activates the auditory part of the brain Calvert et al., 1997 Synaesthesia · concrete perceptual experiences i... e not imagination , memory association, or a sixth sense' · elicited by stimuli in the external environment by internal thoughts i.. e not hallucinations which occur spontaneously automatic I can't be suppressed i. e. unlike thinkinga imagining Developmental synaesthesia runs in families A has a genetic component Baron- Cohen et al., 1996 , however doesn't have to pass down as the same type e. g. mum sees C as , daughter red as green · equally common in males A females · present throughout the lifespan · often trigerred by linguistic stimuli letters, numbers words, etc. , · synaesthetes have exuberant connectivity across whole brain not just in regions related to synaesthesia Acquired synaesthesia · sensory deprivation pharmacologically triggered effects r temporary not permanent Is this for real ? high internal consistency · functional imaging studies Nunn et al blindfolded I talked to then asked what colours they're ·. e g.. 2002 ppl were , seeing · synaesthesia activates coloured area left V4 · controls do not : even if trained to associate colour I even if imagining colour · synaesthetic stroop effect Vision & Touch · Blakemore et al. 2005 fMRI watching somebody else being touched activates our own somatosensory cortex but watching an object touched doesn't Number-Space Synaesthesia · many synaesthetes see numbers in spatial arrays small n = left , large n. = right · we all r faster at responding to small n.w left hand a large n.w right hand Dehaene et al., 1993 · a universal mechanism ? · "It's the taking possesion of the mind , in clear & vivid form , one Attention out of what seem several simultaneously possible objects trains of thought. Focalisation, concentration of consciousnessr its William James 1890 " essence. , · "When the goal is to understand mental phenomena at a mechanistic l it , may be better to figure that no one knows what attention is , d even that one shouldn't assume there's any it' to be understood" Pashler , 1994 · "There can be no simple theory of attention , any more than there can be a simple 'theory of thought' Allport , 1993 · in the absence of a fully encompassing definition of a concept we adopt 'working definitions' to proceed · attention as a process : · selective attention the ability to preferentially process a subset of all available info sustained attention the ability to maintain a state of high alertness arousal vigilance e listening out for an important parcel delivery but you out. g. in the garden one ear out for the doorbell A u keep thinking that u can hear it buta haven't attention as a resource a set of limited resources for cognitive processing : · divided attention ability to distribute attention over a range of competing inputs Selective Auditory Attention · shadowing dichotic listening lab analogue of the 'cocktail party phenomenom' you're given different info into each ear e.. hearing your g name being shouted on the other side of the room whilst speaking to someone else at a party · early experiments showed that participants could tell the experimenters very little abt the info presented to the non-shadowed ear Cherry , 1953 Broadbent , 1958 · participants were unable to : · remember the contents of the message recognise the language of the message · tell if the speech was reversed · tell if the language changed led to development of early selection filter models participants could : · tell if the message was a voice noise · tell if a voice changed from male to female · detect a sudden tone Broadbent's Filter Theory perception sensory buffer-selective filter limited capacity processor · the filter selects info on the basis of its gross physical properties pitch , loudness etc. · doesn't account for the cocktail party syndrome Von Wright et al., 1975 · evidence that info beyond the 'physical' is processed · participants show skin conductance responses to shock associated words despite not report hearing the word · e. g. being conditioned to be afraid when hearing 'bank' getting electrically shocked everytime a hear it , when 'bank' is being played in the un-shadowed ear there's still a SCR shows that the material is still being processed to a degree d you're capable of differentially responding bank us. river bank · prompted debate over whether selection occurred early vs. late in the info processing stream Triesman's attenuation model perception sensory buffer -attenuator selected channel -semantic analysis based on variable threshold · attenuated channels things that we aren't focused on Selective Visual Attention only a very small area of our retina is capable of processing visual info w a high degree of acuity sharpness happens in the forea very poor N a lot of it is illusory  compensated for by moving our 2-3x · eyes see · eye movements & attention r intimately linked · the phenomenom of change blindness aka attentional blindness reveals just how little info we take in from a scene Kuhn & Tatter 2005 magicians rely on the fact that we only process info at fixation: misdirection · · they fitted observers wa n eye tracker to see where they were fixating during the trick · only participants who fixated the objects at the critical points saw them 'dissapear Parallel vs Serial Search · parallel search things which can be done in 1 go · have flat set size functions · serial searches have positive set size functions Visual Search Experiments · basic feature analysis colour orientation intensity occurs in parallel - so targets defined by a single feature 'popout' instantly feature integration next A attention is the visual glue that allows different features to be combined to form coherent · occurs , a percept · conjoint searches have positive set-size functions bes each stimulus must be processed 1 at a time in order to bind the features together Posner 1980 developed a cueing paradigm& demonstrated attentional enhancements wo eye movements · participants press a button as soon as they see a target in 12 flanking boxes · valid cues facilitated RTs faster than where no cue , invalid cues inhibited RTs slower than where no cue ~ these experiments demonstrate 'covert orienting' of attention -wo eye movements · the endogenous cue makes participants shift their spotlight to the right - so quicker to respond on valid trials, but slower on invalid trails attention has to be shifted back Attention & Automacity automaticy often results from extensive practice e. g. driving a familiar route · automatic behaviours r a rich source of action slips e. g. putting the empty yogurt pot in the washing up & throwing the spoon in the bin · automatic processing is inevitable A , once activated, runs to completion Divided Attention = doing more than 1 thing at a time · factors that influence the extent to which2 tasks can be successfully carried out simultaneously: how similar the tasks r-overlap at any stage input storage processing output will create problems · how practiced the operator is Spelke et al., 1976 · how difficult the tasks r-difficulty to disentangle difficulty from practice The Emotional Attentional Biases & Anxiety - Week 7 Stroop = naming the colour of threat-related words · found in PTSD, panic disorder , OCD , social & specific e g.. snakes phobia Visual Search Ohman et al., 2001 · ppl r faster to detect fear relevant stimuli, especially if they're fearful of them The role of relevance Lichtenstein-Vidne 2012 , , 2017 · non-clinical population emotional distraction occurs only when searching for emotional pictures · patients under treatment for anxiety disorder emotional distraction occurs even when searching for neutral pictures Training Biases · probesr consistently presented in the location of threat or non-threat items according to training group · novel material tests the induced bias Treatment Training as · anxious participants r 'trained' to avoid threat pictures words probes behind non-threat stimuli appear ·  = a failure to report respond , or orient to novel or Neglect - Week 8 meaningful contralesional stimuli patients often share make up only I side of their face, eat off1 side of plate read text on 112 of the page etc. may · , Causes · most common is a stroke affecting the right-side of the brain the pariental lobe Tests for neglect line bisection mark the midpoint of a line · picture copying · cancellation tasks · most sensitive made harder by using a more 'crowded array Recovery neglect usually recovers spontaneously within a few weeks months Frames of reference · egocentric reference frame things to the left of oneself "object-centred" reference frame · tells us smthing abt how objects r processed in the absence of awareness objects intrinsic which neglect patients extractA what's the left of it if it's not legocentric' left many have an axis appear to neglect on even on their Extinction = 'mild form of neglect · only occurs when 2 or more objectsr presented at the same time extinguished items still activate visual cortex despite lack of awareness a further evidence that neglect is an impairment of attention rather than perception Non-spatial deficits in attention · neglect patients often have poor wM · show larger & longer "attentional blink" a · problems w sustained attention Types of attention Autism & Attention - Week 9 · selective focusing on 1 stimulus whilst ignoring others · sustained maintaing focus on a task over time · divided attention handling multiple tasks simultaneously · alternating attention shifting focus between tasks characteristics in autism · differences in selective attention often , whyperfocus on specific interests · challenges in shifting attention or maintaining focus on less engaging tasks Dual Task Paradigm · performing 2 tasks simultaneously to measure the impact on attention & cognitive load · used to study selective attention & divided attention , particularly in autistic individuals · Belmonte et al. 2010 examined attentional challenges in autism individuals often struggle to shift focus between tasks, which may reflect differences in attentional control systems dual task Remington et al. 2012 showed that autistic ppl have superior sustained attention but may experience difficulty in performance due to challenges in switching focus · Carter Leno et al. 2021 revealed that attentional control deficits in autism r linked to disruptions in brain systems that manage complex multi-tasking , environments · Bolis & Schilbach 2020 found that attentional differences r often heightened during social interactions, which can compound challenges in dual task settings · Murray et al. 2022 suggested that sensory overload in autism significantly impacts the ability to shift attention between tasks a difficulty in dual task performance Attention in young autistic children Dwyer et al., 2024 types of attention investigated :. 1 hyper-focus : intense , prolonged attention to specific stimuli 2. sticky attention difficulty : shifting focus from a task stimulus slowness to , disengage 3. springy attentions ability to rapidly switch focus A return to original task · objective explore hyper-focus sticky : , attention & springy attention in young autistic children · methodology : use of novel tasks to measure attentional types , sensory behaviours, A cognitive abilities ~ elevated hyper-focus& sticky attention · reduce springy attention · associations w sensory behaviours & cognitive abilities Hyperfocus in Autism = intense concentration on specific interests activities · can lead to high productivity & deep engagement but might cause difficulties in shifting attention et al Dupuis D.., 2022 ~ individuals wautism often experience heightened states of hyper focus engagement, enhanced flow states r associated w increased task performance I feeling of timelessness Flow & Autism flow may manifest more easily in individuals wautism , particularly in tasks related to personal interest special abilities Csikszentmihalyi , 1992 · flow a state of optimal experience where individuals rfully engaged in an activitya feelings of enjoyment, focus, A personal satisfaction is linked to wellbeing bes it creates a sense of mastery self awareness fades , , A time perception shifts · core aspects of flow :  · balance between challengeI skill the : activity requires effort but matches the individual's skill deep concentration focus : is so intense that distractions r limited altered perception of time time feels like it or stands still passes quickly ·