Class 11 TN Board History Syllabus PDF

www.UPSCPDF.com HISTORY © Government of Tamilnadu First Edition - 2007...

www.UPSCPDF.com HISTORY © Government of Tamilnadu First Edition - 2007 Chairperson Dr. C. Thiruvenkadam Higher Secondary - First Year Reader in History, Pachaiyappa’s College, Prepared as per recommendation of the Chennai - 600 030. Textbook Development Committee, this New Textbook is prepared according to the Syllabus published in 2003-04. Reviewer Dr. K.Vijaya A Publication under Government of Lecturer in History, (Selection Grade) Tamilnadu Distribution of Quaid-e-Milleth Govt. College for Women Free Textbook Programme Chennai - 600 002. (Not for Sale) Authors Tmt. M.Muthumari Thiru V. Zafar Ahmed P.G. Asst. (History) P.G. Asst. Headmaster (History) Perum Thalivar Kamarajar Govt. The Muslim Hr. Sec.School Untouchability is a sin Girls Higher Secondary Shcool, Triplicane, Ambattur, Chennai - 600 053. Chennai - 600 005. Untouchability is a crime Untouchability is inhuman Price : Rs. This book has been prepared by the Directorate of School Education on behalf of the Government of Tamil Nadu. TAMILNADU This book has been printed on 60 GSM Paper TEXT BOOK CORPORATION College Road, Chennai - 600 006.  www.UPSCPDF.com FOREWORD PREFACE Academics, parents and the educational media have represented In the curriculum of schools, the subject history forms part to the Government of Tamil Nadu, to reform the Plus one and Plus two of the Social Science up to Tenth Standard. At that level the main text books, which were introduced in the academic year 2005-06. Our trends and developments in the history of India have been introduced beloved Chief Minister, who has always been evincing keen interest in to the pupils. When they reach the Higher Secondary stage, a educational development, immediately constituted a “Text Book systematic study of history is required in order to understand the Development Committee” under the Chairmanship of the Vice-Chairman, cultural heritage of India, to inherit secular values and to develop a State Planning Commission, Government of Tamil Nadu. positive outlook on the future. The Text Book Development Committee solicited opinion from Therefore, this book intends to provide the political, social, lecturers and professors from Higher Secondary Schools, Colleges and economic and cultural aspects of Indian history. It is written as per Universities, Chairpersons and authors of text books. After perusing the the syllabus prescribed for Standard XI. It covers both ancient and opinions, the Text Book Development Committee, decided not to change medieval India up to the coming of the Europeans. ths syllabi, but recommended suitable changes in the text books. While providing historical facts, much care has been taken In particular, it was proposed to rewrite the History text book, and and standard historical works written by eminent historians have been accepting this proposal, this text book is rewritten by experienced and consulted. Latest historical information has also been included in the efficient teachers. lessons. We are pleased to place on record our sincere gratitude to our In the process of learning, the pupils will also be benefited by beloved Chief Minister. Our thanks are due to Hon’ble Minister for School the maps and figures, which illustrate the political geography and Education, Secretary and Director, Department of School Education, cultural greatness of our country. Government of Tamil Nadu for their valuable support and suggestions. The model questions provided at the end of each chapter are We thank, lecturers and Professors from Higher Secondary based on the Public Examination Question Paper pattern. Questions Schools, Colleges and Universities, Chairpersons and authors of text on the same model will be asked in the examination and therefore, books, non-teaching staff of edcuation department and State Planning the pupils must read the entire text to answer such questions. Commission for their help at various stages in this endeavor. I am thankful to the members of the committee for their We wish the students to learn and perform well in the examinations. cooperation in bringing out this book. Prof. M. Naganathan C. THIRUVENKADAM Chairman Chairperson Text Book Development Committee Government of Tamil Nadu XI History iii iv  www.UPSCPDF.com STANDARD XI - HISTORY 8. The Mauryan period - Sources - Chandragupta Maurya - Asoka - Mauryan Administration - SYLLABUS Asoka’s Dharma - Development of Art and Periods Architecture - Decline of Mauryas. 10 Unit I 1. The Impact of Geography on Indian History - Unit IV Unity in Diversity 5 9. India after the Mauryas - the Sungas - Kanvas - 2. The Stone Age - The Old Stone Age Satavahanas Kushnas - Kanishka - Gandhara Art. 10 (Paleolithic Age) - New Stone Age 10. Sangam Age in Tamil Nadu - Sources - Brief (Neolithic Age) - Metal Age - Salient features History of Kingdoms - Social, Religious and of Harappan culture. 5 Economic life of the people. 5 3. Vedic Period - Sources - Early Vedic Period Unit V (Rig Vedic Period) - Later Vedic Period - 11. India of Gupta period - Administration - Epic age - Social, Economic and Cultural life 5 Social, Economic and Cultural conditions - Hun invasions and decline of the Guptas. 10 Unit II 12. Harshavardhana - Sources - Social, Religious 4. Condition of India in the 6th Century B.C. and Cultural life. 5 - Magadhan empire and other kindgoms. 5 Unit VI 5. Rise of Jainism - Mahavira - Principles of Jainism - 13. South Indian Empires 15 Digambaras and Swedambaras - Spread of Jainism - A. Pallavas - Sources - Administration - Social, Economic and Contributions. 5 Cultural conditions. 6. Rise of Buddhism - Buddha - Principles of B. Chalukyas - Development of Arts. Buddhism - Hinayana and Mahayana sects - C. Rashtrakutas - Contribution to Arts. Spread of Buddhism - Contributions. The Similarities and dissimilarities of these two religions. 5 D. Cholas - Social, Economic and Cultural conditions. Unit III 14. The Cultural Relations between India and the Asian countries 5 7. India of the Pre-Mauryan period - Nandas - Persian invasion - Alexander’s invasion - Results. 5 v vi  www.UPSCPDF.com Unit VII CONTENTS 15. Indian During Arab Invasions - Rajput kingdoms - INDIAN HISTORY Arab Invasions-Mahmud of Ghazni-Muthammad of Ghor. 10 Sub. Page 16. Delhi Sultans - Mameluk, Khilji, Tughluq, Sayyid and Lodi Dynasties. 20 No. No. 17. Social, Economic and Cultural conditions under 1. India - Geographical Features and their 1 Impact on History the Sultanate of Delhi 2. Pre-Historic India and the Harappan Culture 11 3. The Vedic Culture 27 Unit VIII 4. Jainism and Buddhism 37 18. Bhakti Movement in Medieaval India - Ramananda, 5. The Rise of Magadha and Alexander’s Invasion 47 Kabir - Vallabhacharya - Chaitanya - Gurunanak - 6. The Mauryan Empire 59 Meerabai - Sufism 10 7. Post - Mauryan India 74 19. Vijayanagar and Bahmani kingdoms - Social, 8. Sangam Age 85 Economic and Cultural conditions. 10 9. Gupta Empire 96 10. Harshavardhana (606 - 647 A.D) 113 Unit IX 11. South Indian Kingdoms - I Pallavas 122 20. Mughal empire - Brief History of Mughal, Sur 12. South Indian Kingdoms - II dynasty rulers. 15 Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas 132 13. Imperial Cholas 141 21. Mughal Administration - Emperor - Central 14. The Spread of Indian Culture in Government Officials - Provincial Governments - other Asian Countries 154 Officials - Duties - Decline of the Mughals. 15. Early Medieval India 163 22. Social, Economics, Religious and Cultural conditions 16. Delhi Sultanate 172 under the Mughals. 10 17. India under the Delhi Sultanate 190 18. Bhakti Movement in Medieval India 200 Unit X 19. Vijayanagar and Bahmani Kingdoms 209 23. Rise of Marathas - Administration of Shivaji - 20. The Mughal Empire 221 Peshwas. 10 21. India under the Mughals 239 24. Coming of the Europeans to India - Establishment of 22. The Marathas 249 British Rule in India 10 23. The Coming of Europeans 258 vii viii www.UPSCPDF.com LESSON 1 INDIA- GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES AND THEIR IMPACT ON HISTORY Learning Objectives Students will acquire knowledge about 1. The geographical features of India. 2. The Himalayan Mountains and their impact on Indian history. 3. The Gangetic plains and their role in Indian history. 4. The Southern Peninsula and its effects on South Indian history. 5. India’s unity in diversity It is generally said that history has two eyes – one is chronology and the other is geography. In other words time and space are significant factors in determining the historical process. In particular, a country’s geography largely determines its historical events. The history of India is also influenced by its geography. Hence, the study of Indian geographical features contributes to the better understanding of its history. The Indian subcontinent is a well-defined geographical unit. It may be divided into three major regions: the Himalayan Mountains, the Indo-Gangetic Plains and the Southern Peninsula. There are five countries in the subcontinent – India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal and Bhutan. India is the largest among them and it comprises twenty-nine states and six Union Territories. According to the 2011 Census, the population of India is over one hundred crores. 1  www.UPSCPDF.com The Himalayan Mountains The valley of Kashmir is surrounded by high mountains. However, The Himalayan Mountains are situated on the north of India. it could be reached through several passes. The Kashmir valley Starting from the Pamir in the extreme northwest of India, the mighty remains unique for its tradition and culture. Nepal is also a small Himalayan range extends towards northeast. It has a length of nearly valley under the foot of the Himalayas and it is accessible from 2560 kilometres with an average breadth of 240 to 320 kilometres. Gangetic plains through a number of passes. The highest peak of the Himalayas is known as Mount Everest with In the east, the Himalayas extend up to Assam. The important its height being 8869 metres. It acts as a natural wall and protects mountains in this region are Pat Koi, Nagai and Lushai ranges. These the country against the cold arctic winds blowing from Siberia through hills are covered with thick forests due to heavy rains and mostly Central Asia. This keeps the climate of northern India fairly warm remain inhospitable. The mountains of northeast India is difficult to throughout the year. The Himalayan region is mostly inhospitable in cross and many parts of this region had remained in relative isolation. winter and generally covered with snow. The Indo-Gangetic Plain It was considered for a long time that the Himalayas stood as The Indo-Gangetic plain is irrigated by three important rivers, a natural barrier to protect India against invasions. But, the passes the Ganges, Indus and Brahmaputra. This vast plain is most fertile in the northwest mountains such as the Khyber, Bolan, Kurram and and productive because of the alluvial soil brought by the streams Gomal provided easy routes between India and Central Asia. These of the rivers and its tributaries. passes are situated in the Hindukush, Sulaiman and Kirthar ranges. The Indus river rises beyond the Himalayas and its major From prehistoric times, there was a continuous flow of traffic through tributaries are the Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Sutlej and Beas. The Punjab these passes. Many people came to India through these passes as plains are benefited by the Indus river system. The literal meaning of invaders and immigrants. The Indo-Aryans, the Indo-Greeks, the term ‘Punjab’ is the land of five rivers. Sind is situated at the lower Parthians, Sakas, Kushanas, Hunas and Turks entered India through valley of the Indus. The Indus plain is known for its fertile soil. these passes. The Swat valley in this region formed another The Thar Desert and Aravalli hills are situated in between the important route. Alexander of Macedon came to India through this Indus and Gangetic plains. Mount Abu is the highest point (5650 ft.) in route. Apart from invading armies, missionaries and merchants came the Aravalli hills. The Ganges river rises in the Himalayas, flows south to India using these routes. Therefore, these passes in the northwest and then towards the east. The river mountains had facilitated trade as well as cultural contacts between Yamuna flows almost parallel to the India and the Central Asia. Ganges and then joins it. The area In the north of Kashmir is Karakoram Range. The second between these two rivers is called doab highest peak in the world, Mount Godwin Austen is situated here. – meaning the land between two rivers. The important tributaries of the Ganges This part of the Himalayas and its passes are high and snow-covered are the Gomati, Sarayu, Ghagra and in the winter. The Karakoram highway via Gilgit is connected to Thar Desert Gandak. Central Asia but there was little communication through this route. 2 3  www.UPSCPDF.com In the east of India, the Ganges plain merges into the plains of to cut into, we find a number of rock-cut monasteries and temples Brahmaputra. The river Brahmaputra rises beyond the Himalayas, flows in the Deccan. across Tibet and then continues through the plains of northeast India. In The Deccan plateau is flanked by the Eastern Ghats and the plains, it is a vast but a slow-moving river forming several islands. Western Ghats. The Coramandal Coast stands between the Eastern The Indo-Gangetic plain has contributed to the rise of urban Ghats and the Bay of Bengal. The Western Ghats runs along the centres, particularly on the river banks or at the confluence of rivers. Arabian sea and the lands between these are known as Konkan up The Harappan culture flourished in the Indus valley. The Vedic culture to Goa and beyond that as Kanara. The southernmost part is known prospered in the western Gangetic plain. Banares, Allahabad, Agra, as Malabar Coast. The passes in the Western Ghats like Junnar, Delhi and Pataliputra are some of the important cities of the Gangetic Kanheri and Karle linked the trade routes to the western ports. The plain. The city of Pataliputra was situated at the confluence of Son Deccan plateau acted as a bridge between the north and south India. river with the Ganges. In the ancient period Pataliputra had remained However, the dense forests in the Vindhya Mountains makes this the capital for the Mauryas, Sungas, Guptas and other kingdoms. region isolated from the north. The language and culture in the The most important city on the western side of the Gangetic plain southern peninsula are preserved in tact for a long time due to this is Delhi. Most of the decisive battles of Indian history such as the geographical isolation. Kurukshetra, Tarain and Panipat were fought near Delhi. Also, this In the southern end remains the famous Palghat Pass. It is the plain had always been a source of temptation and attraction for the passage across the Ghats from the Kaveri valley to the Malabar foreign invaders due to its fertility and productive wealth. Important Coast. The Palghat Pass was an important trade route for the Indo- powers fought for the possession of these plains and valleys. Especially Roman trade in the ancient times. The Anaimudi is the highest peak the Ganga-Yamuna doab proved to be the most coveted and contested in the southern peninsula. Doddapetta is another highest peak in the area. Western Ghats. The Eastern Ghats are not very high and have several The rivers in this region served as arteries of commerce and openings caused by the eastward flow of the rivers into the Bay of communication. In ancient times it was difficult to make roads, and Bengal. The port cities of Arikkamedu, Mamallapuram and so men and material were moved by boat. The importance of rivers Kaveripattanam were situated on the Coramandal coast. for communication continued till the days of the East India Company. The major rivers of the southern peninsula are almost running The Southern Peninsula parallel. Mahanadhi is at the eastern end of the peninsula. Narmadha and Tapti run from east to west. Other rivers like the Godavari, The Vindhya and Satpura mountains along with Narmada and Krishna, Tungabhadra and Kaveri flow from west to east. These the Tapti rivers form the great dividing line between northern and rivers make the plateau into a fertile rice producing soil. Throughout southern India. The plateau to the south of the Vindhya Mountains history, the region between Krishna and Tungabhadra (Raichur is known as the Deccan plateau. It consists of volcanic rock, which Doab) remained a bone of contention between the major kingdoms is different from the northern mountains. As these rocks are easier of the south. The deltaic plains formed by these two rivers at their 4 5  www.UPSCPDF.com mouths became famous under the Satavahanas. A number of towns religions, and observe different social customs, they follow certain and ports flourished in these plains in the beginning of the Christian common styles of life throughout the country. Therefore, our country era. shows a deep underlying unity in spite of great diversity. The Kaveri delta constitutes a distinct geographical zone in In fact, the ancients strove for unity. They looked upon this the far south. It became the seat of the Chola power. The Kaveri vast subcontinent as one land. The name Bharatavarsha or the basin with its rich tradition, language and culture has flourished from land of Bharata was given to the whole country, after the name of the ancient times. an ancient tribe called the Bharatas. Our ancient poets, philosophers As the southern peninsula is gifted with a long coastline, the and writers viewed the country as an integral unit. This kind of political people of this region took keen interest in the maritime activities. A unity was attained at least twice during the Mauryan and Gupta great deal of trade and commerce went on through the seaways Empires. from the earliest times. In the east, mariners reached countries like The unity of India was also recognized by foreigners. They Jawa, Sumatra, Burma and Cambodia. Apart from trade, they first came into contact with the people living on the Sindhu or the spread Indian art, religion and culture in these parts of the world. Indus, and so they named the whole country after this river. The The commercial contacts between south India and the Greco-Roman word Hind is derived from the Sanskrit term Sindhu, and in course countries flourished along with cultural relations. of time the country came to be known as ‘India’ in Greek, and India – A Land of Unity in Diversity ‘Hind’ in Persian and Arabic languages. The history of ancient India is interesting because India proved Efforts for the linguistic and cultural unity of the country were to be a melting pot of numerous races. The pre-Aryans, the Indo- made through the ages. In the third century B.C., Prakrit language Aryans, the Greeks, the Scythians, the Hunas, the Turks, etc., made served as the lingua franca of the country. Throughout the major India their home. Each ethnic group contributed its might to the portion of India, Asoka’s inscriptions were written in the Prakrit making of Indian culture. All these peoples mixed up so inextricably language. Also, the ancient epics, the Ramayana and the with one another that at present none of them can be identified in Mahabharata, were studied with the same zeal and devotion their original form. Different cultures mingled with one another throughout the country. Originally composed in Sanskrit, these epics through the ages. Many pre-Aryan or Dravidian terms occur in the came to be presented in different local languages. Although the Indian Vedic texts. Similarly, many Pali and Sanskritic terms appear in the cultural values and ideas were expressed in different forms, the Sangam literature. substance remained the same throughout the country. Since ancient times, India has been the land of several religions. Hence, India has emerged a multi-religious and multi-cultural Ancient India witnessed the birth of Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism. society. However, the underlying unity and integrity and the plural But all these cultures and religions intermingled with one another. character of Indian society remain the real strength for the Although Indians people speak different languages, practice different development of the country. 6 7  www.UPSCPDF.com Learning Outcome MODEL QUESTIONS After learning this lesson the students will be able to explain I. Choose the correct answer. 1. The geographical features of India. 1. Alexander of Macedon came to India through 2. The details of the Himalayan Mountains, the passes in (a) Deccan Plateau (b) Kharakoram range the northwest and how they were used by the foreign (c) Swat valley (d) Aravalli hills invaders, traders and migrants. 2. The region between two rivers is called 3. The river systems of the Indo-Gangetic Gangetic valley and their impact on the historical events such as battles (a) Plateau (b) Peninsula and emergence of urban centres. (c) Doab (d) Peak 4. The southern peninsula, the long coasts which II. Fill in the blanks. contributed to a lot of maritime activities. 1. The river Ganges rises in ……. 5. How India emerged as a multicultural society and the same is successfully sustained over the centuries. 2. The highest peak in the southern peninsula is …… III. Match the following. 1. Mount Everest a) Aravalli hills 2. Mount Abu b) Kharakoram 3. Doddabetta c) Himalayas 4. Godwin Austin d) Western Ghats IV. Find out the correct statement. One statement alone is right. a) Narmada river runs from east to west. b) Kaveri river runs from south to north. c) Yamuna river merges with Tapti. d) Maha Nadhi river irrigates the Punjab region. 8 9  www.UPSCPDF.com V. State whether the following statements are true or False. LESSON 2 1. The city of Pataliputra was situated at the confluence of Ganges PRE-HISTORIC INDIA AND with Brahmaputra. THE HARAPPAN CULTURE 2. The long coast line in the southern peninsula contributed to the growth of maritime trade. Learning Objectives Students will acquire knowledge about 3. The Palghat Pass is situated on the Western Ghats. 1. The Pre-historic period. 4. India is a multi-cultural society. 2. Origin and evolution of the Harappan Civilization. VI. Write short notes (Any three points). 3. Socio-economic condition of the Harappan people. 1. Himalayan Mountains. 4. Cultural life of the Harappans. 2. Deccan Plateau. 5. The Decline of the Harappan Civilization. 3. Rivers of southern peninsula 4. Multi-cultural society. The history of human settlements in India goes back to VII. Answer briefly (100 words). prehistoric times. No written records are available for the pre- 1. Write a note on the impact of the Indo-Gangetic Plains on the historic period. However, plenty of archaeological remains are found history of India. in different parts of India to reconstruct the history of this period. They include the stone tools, pottery, artifacts and metal implements 2. Briefly describe the geography of South India. used by pre-historic people. The development of archaeology helps VIII. Answer in detail (200 words). much to understand the life and culture of the people who lived in 1. Assess the impact of geography on the history of India. this period. 2. ‘India is a land of unity in diversity’ – Elucidate. In India, the prehistoric period is divided into the Paleolithic (Old Stone Age), Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age), Neolithic (New Stone Age) and the Metal Age. However, these periods were not uniform throughout the Indian subcontinent. The dating of the pre- historic period is done scientifically. The technique of radio-carbon dating is commonly used for this purpose. It is based on measuring the loss of carbon in organic materials over a period of time. Another dating method is known as dendro-chronology. It refers to the 10 11  www.UPSCPDF.com number of tree rings in wood. By counting the number of tree rings PRE HISTORY in the wood, the date of the wood is arrived at. INDIA Paleolithic or Old Stone Age The Old Stone Age sites are widely found in various parts of the Indian subcontinent. These sites are generally located near water sources. Several rock shelters and caves used by the Paleolithic s Rubar people are scattered across the subcontinent. They also lived rarely ndu Kalibangan I in huts made of leaves. Some of the famous sites of Old Stone Age Mohenjadaro in India are: a. The Soan valley and Potwar Plateau on the northwest India. b. The Siwalik hills on the north India. Lothal c. Bhimpetka in Madhya Pradesh. d. Adamgarh hill in Narmada valley. Aribian Sea Sisupalgarh e. Kurnool in Andhra Pradesh and Bay of Bengal f. Attirampakkam near Chennai. Maski Prahmagiri Anandapur In the Old Stone Age, food was obtained by hunting animals and gathering edible plants and tubers. Therefore, these people are Pallavaram called as hunter-gatherers. They used stone tools, hand-sized and flaked-off large pebbles for hunting animals. Stone implements are made of a hard rock known as quartzite. Large Adichanallur pebbles are often found in river terraces. Indian Ocean The hunting of large animals would have required the combined effort of a group of people with large stone axes. We have Old Stone Age Tools little knowledge about their language and communication. Their way of life became modified with the passage of time since they made attempts to domesticate animals, make crude pots and grow some plants. A few Old Stone Age paintings have 12 13  www.UPSCPDF.com also been found on rocks at Bhimbetka and other places. The period Uttar Pradesh and in several places of the Deccan. The important before 10000 B.C. is assigned to the Old Stone Age. Neolithic sites excavated in south India are Maski, Brahmagiri, Hallur Mesolithic or Middle Stone Age and Kodekal in Karnataka, Paiyampalli in Tamil Nadu and Utnur in Andhra Pradesh. The next stage of human life is called Mesolithic or Middle Stone Age which falls roughly from 10000 B.C. to 6000 B.C. It The chief characteristic features of the Neolithic culture are was the transitional phase between the Paleolithic Age and Neolithic the practice of agriculture, domestication of animals, polishing of Age. Mesolithic remains are found in Langhanj in Gujarat, Adamgarh stone tools and the manufacture of pottery. In fact, the cultivation of in Madhya Pradesh and also in some places of Rajasthan, Utter plants and domestication of animals led to the emergence of village Pradesh and Bihar. The paintings and engravings found at the rock communities based on sedentary life. shelters give an idea about the social life and economic activities of There was a great improvement in technology of making tools Mesolithic people. In the sites of Mesolithic Age, a different type of and other equipments used by man. Stone tools were now polished. stone tools is found. These are tiny stone artifacts, often not more The polished axes were found to be more effective tools for hunting than five centimeters in size, and therefore called microliths. The and cutting trees. Mud brick houses were built instead of grass huts. hunting-gathering pattern of life continued during this period. Wheels were used to make pottery. Pottery was used for cooking However, there seems to have been a shift from big animal hunting as well as storage of food grains. Large urns were used as coffins to small animal hunting and fishing. The use of bow and arrow also for the burial of the dead. There was also improvement in agriculture. began during this period. Also, there began a tendency to settle for Wheat, barely, rice, millet were cultivated in different areas at longer periods in an area. Therefore, domestication of animals, different points of time. Rice cultivation was extensive in eastern horticulture and primitive cultivation started. Animal bones are found India. Domestication of sheep, goats and cattle was widely prevalent. in these sites and these include dog, deer, boar and ostrich. Cattle were used for cultivation and for transport. The people of Occasionally, burials of the dead along with some microliths and Neolithic Age used clothes made of cotton and wool. shells seem to have been practiced. Metal Age Neolithic Age The Neolithic period is followed by Chalcolithic (copper-stone) A remarkable progress is period when copper and bronze came to be used. The new noticed in human civilization in the technology of smelting metal ore and crafting metal artifacts is an Neolithic Age. It is approximately important development in human civilization. But the use of stone dated from 6000 B.C to 4000 tools was not given up. Some of the micro-lithic tools continued to B.C. Neolithic remains are found be essential items. People began to travel for a long distance to in various parts of India. These obtain metal ores. This led to a network of Chalcolithic cultures New Stone Age Tools include the Kashmir valley, and the Chalcolithic cultures were found in many parts of India. Chirand in Bihar, Belan valley in 14 15  www.UPSCPDF.com Generally, Chalcolithic cultures had grown in river valleys. Most importantly, the Harappan culture is considered as a part of Chalcolithic culture. In South India the river valleys of the Godavari, Harappan Culture Krishna, Tungabhadra, Pennar and Kaveri were settled by farming communities during this period. Although they were not using metals in the beginning of the Metal Age, there is evidence of copper and bronze artifacts by the end of second millennium B.C. Several bronze and copper objects, beads, terracotta figurines and pottery were found at Paiyampalli in Tamil Nadu. m The Chalcolithic age is followed by Iron Age. Iron is frequently helu Z vi referred to in the Vedas. The Iron Age of the southern peninsula is Ra often related to Megalithic Burials. Megalith means Large Stone. Harappa Rupar The burial pits were covered with these stones. Such graves are s extensively found in South India. Some of the important megalithic ndu Kalipangan I sites are Hallur and Maski in Karnataka, Nagarjunakonda in Andhra Mohenjadaro Pradesh and Adichchanallur in Tamil Nadu. Black and red pottery, iron artifacts such as hoes and sickles and small weapons were Chanhudro found in the burial pits. The Harappan Civilization The earliest excavations in the Indus valley were done at Lothal Harappa in the West Punjab and Mohenjodaro in Sind. Both places are now in Pakistan. The findings in these two cities brought to light Aribian Sea a civilization. It was first called the ‘The Indus Valley Civilization’. But this civilization was later named as the ‘Indus Civilization’ due to the discovery of more and more sites far away from the Indus valley. Also, it has come to be called the ‘Harappan Civilization’ after the name of its first discovered site. Important Sites Among the many other sites excavated, the most important are Kot Diji in Sind, Kalibangan in Rajasthan, Rupar in the Punjab, 16 17  www.UPSCPDF.com Banawali in Haryana, Lothal, Surkotada and Dholavira, all the three Date of the Harappan Culture in Gujarat. The larger cities are approximately a hundred hectares In 1931, Sir John Marshall estimated the duration of the in size. Mohenjodara is the largest of all the Indus cities and it is occupation of Mohenjodaro between 3250 and 2750 B.C. estimated to have spread over an area of 200 hectares. Subsequently, as and when new sites were discovered, the dating Origin and Evolution of the Harappan culture is modified. The advent of the radiocarbon The archaeological findings excavated for the last eight method paves way for fixing almost accurate dates. By 1956, decades reveal the gradual development of the Harappan culture. Fairservis brought down the dating of the Harappan culture to There are four important stages or phases of evolution and they are between 2000 and 1500 B.C. on the basis of radiocarbon dates of named as pre-Harappan, early-Harappan, mature-Harappan and his findings. In 1964, D.P. Agarwal came to the conclusion that the late Harappan. total span of this culture should be between 2300 and 1750 B.C. Yet, there is further scope of modification of these dates. The pre-Harappan stage is located in eastern Baluchistan. The excavations at Mehrgarh 150 miles to the northwest of Salient Features of the Harappan Culture Mohenjodaro reveal the existence of pre-Harappan culture. In this Town Planning stage, the nomadic people began to lead a settled agricultural life. The Harappan culture was distinguished by its system of town- In the early-Harappan stage, the people lived in large villages planning on the lines of the grid system – that is streets and lanes in the plains. There was a gradual growth of towns in the Indus cutting across one another almost at right angles thus dividing the valley. Also, the transition from rural to urban life took place during city into several rectangular this period. The sites of Amri and Kot Diji remain the evidence for blocks. Harappa, Mohenjodaro early-Harappan stage. and Kalibangan each had its own In the mature-Harappan stage, great cities emerged. The citadel built on a high podium of excavations at Kalibangan with its elaborate town planning and urban mud brick. Below the citadel in features prove this phase of evolution. each city lay a lower town containing brick houses, which In the late-Harappan stage, the decline of the Indus culture Great Bath at Mohenjodaro were inhabited by the common started. The excavations at Lothal reveal this stage of evolution. people. The large-scale use of burnt bricks in almost all kinds of Lothal with its port was founded much later. It was surrounded by a constructions and the absence of stone buildings are the important massive brick wall as flood protection. Lothal remained an characteristics of the Harappan culture. Another remarkable feature emporium of trade between the Harappan civilization and the was the underground drainage system connecting all houses to the remaining part of India as well as Mesopotamia. street drains which were covered by stone slabs or bricks. 18 19  www.UPSCPDF.com The most important public place of Mohenjodaro is the Great Iran Gold, copper, tin and several semi-precious stones were Bath measuring 39 feet length, 23 feet breadth and 8 feet depth. imported. Main exports were several agricultural products such as Flights of steps at either end lead to the surface. There are side wheat, barely, peas, oil seeds and a variety of finished products rooms for changing clothes. The floor of the Bath was made of including cotton goods, pottery, beads, terracotta figures and ivory burnt bricks. Water was drawn from a large well in an adjacent products. There is much evidence to prove the trade links between room, and an outlet from one corner of the Bath led to a drain. It the Indus and Sumerian people. Many seals of Indus valley have must have served as a ritual bathing site. The largest building in been found in Mesopotamia. Trade was of the barter type. The Mohenjodaro is a granary measuring 150 feet length and 50 feet seals and the terracotta models of the Indus valley reveal the use of breadth. But in the citadel of Harappa we find as many as six bullock carts and oxen for land transport and boats and ships for granaries. river and sea transport. Economic life Social Life There was a great progress in all spheres of economic activity Much evidence is available to understand the social life of the such as agriculture, industry and crafts and trade. Wheat and barley Harappans. The dress of both men and women consisted of two were the main crops grown besides sesame, mustard and cotton. pieces of cloth, one upper garment and Surplus grain is stored in granaries. Animals like sheep, goats and the other lower garment. Beads were buffalo were domesticated. The use of horse is not yet firmly worn by men and women. Jewelleries established. A number of other animals were hunted for food such as bangles, bracelets, fillets, including deer. girdles, anklets, ear-rings and finger- Specialized groups of artisans include goldsmiths, brick rings were worn by women. These makers, stone cutters, weavers, boat-builders and terracotta ornaments were made of gold, silver, manufacturers. Bronze and copper vessels are the outstanding copper, bronze and semi precious ORNAMENTS USED BY THE HARAPPANS examples of the Harappan metal craft. stones. The use of cosmetics was Gold and silver ornaments are found in common. Various household articles many places. Pottery remains plain and made of pottery, stone, shells, ivory and metal have been found at in some places red and black painted Mohenjodaro. Spindles, needles, combs, fishhooks, knives are made pottery is found. Beads were of copper. Children’s toys include little clay carts. Marbles, balls manufactured from a wide variety of and dice were used for games. Fishing was a regular occupation semi-precious stones. while hunting and bull fighting were other pastimes. There were numerous specimens of weapons of war such as axes, spearheads, Internal trade was extensive with daggers, bows, arrows made of copper and bronze. HARAPPAN SEAL other parts of India. Foreign trade was mainly conducted with Mesopotamia, Afghanistan and 20 21  www.UPSCPDF.com Arts exists and there is no doubt that the decipherment of Harappan The Harappan sculpture revealed a high degree of script will throw much light on this culture. workmanship. Figures of men and women, animals and birds made Religion of terracotta and the carvings on the seals show From the seals, terracotta figurines and copper tablets we the degree of proficiency attained by the sculptor. get an idea on the religious life of the Harappans. The chief male The figure of a dancing girl from Mohenjodaro made deity was Pasupati, (proto-Siva) represented in seals as sitting in a of bronze is remarkable for its workmanship. Its yogic posture with three faces and two horns. He is surrounded by right hand rests on the hip, while the left arm, four animals (elephant, tiger, rhino, and buffalo each facing a different covered with bangles, hangs loosely in a relaxed direction). Two deer appear on his feet. The chief female deity was posture. Two stone statues from Harappa, one the Mother Goddess represented in terracotta figurines. In latter representing the back view of a man and the other times, Linga worship was prevalent. Trees and animals were also of a dancer are also specimens of their sculpture. TERRACOTTA worshipped by the Harappans. They believed in ghosts and evil FIGURINE The pottery from Harappa is another specimen of forces and used amulets as protection against them. the fine arts of the Indus people. The pots and jars were painted with various designs and colours. Painted pottery is of better quality. Burial Methods The pictorial motifs consisted of geometrical patterns like horizontal The cemeteries discovered around the cities like Mohenjodaro, lines, circles, leaves, plants and trees. On some pottery pieces we Harappa, Kalibangan, Lothal and Rupar throw light on the burial find figures of fish or peacock. practices of the Harappans. Complete burial and post-cremation Script burial were popular at Mohenjodaro. At Lothal the burial pit was lined with burnt bricks indicating the use of coffins. Wooden coffins The Harappan script has still to be fully deciphered. The were also found at Harappa. The practice of pot burials is found at number of signs is between 400 and 600 of which 40 or 60 are Lothal sometimes with pairs of skeletons. However, there is no clear basic and the rest are their variants. The script evidence for the practice of Sati. was mostly written from right to left. In a few long seals the boustrophedon method – writing Decline of the Harappan Culture in the reverse direction in alternative lines - was There is no unanimous view pertaining to the cause for the adopted. Parpola and his Scandinavian decline of the Harappan culture. Various theories have been colleagues came to the conclusion that the postulated. Natural calamities like recurring floods, drying up of HARAPPAN SCRIPT language of the Harappans was Dravidian. A rivers, decreasing fertility of the soil due to excessive exploitation group of Soviet scholars accepts this view. and occasional earthquakes might have caused the decline of the Other scholars provide different view connecting the Harappan Harappan cities. According to some scholars the final blow was script with that of Brahmi. The mystery of the Harappan script still 22 23  www.UPSCPDF.com delivered by the invasion of Aryans. The destruction of forts is MODEL QUESTIONS mentioned in the Rig Veda. Also, the discovery of human skeletons huddled together at Mohenjodaro indicates that the city was invaded I. Choose the correct answer. by foreigners. The Aryans had superior weapons as well as swift 1. The Chalcolithic age was followed by horses which might have enabled them to become masters of this (a) Old Stone age (b) New Stone age region. (c) Iron age (d) Mesolithic age 2. The port city of the Harappan culture Learning Outcome (a) Kalibangan (b) Lothal After learning this lesson the students will be to explain (c) Banawali (d) Rupar 1. The findings of the Paleolithic, Neolithic and Metal Age and the socio-economic life of the people during these II. Fill in the blanks. periods. 1. The most important Megalithic site in Tamil Nadu is ….. 2. The origin and evolution of the Harappan culture and 2. The chief female deity of the Harappan culture was …… the important sites of excavations. III. Match the following. 3. The salient features of the Harappan civilization such as 1. Kot Diji a) Haryana town planning, social life and economic condition of the Harappans. 2. Dholavira b) Rajasthan 4. The date of the Harappan culture as well as the religious 3. Kalibangan c) Sind beliefs and the art of the Harappans. 4. Banawali d) Gujarat 5. Different views on the decline of the Harappan IV. Find out the correct statement. One statement alone is civilization. right. a) There are three stages in the evolution of Harappan culture. b) Parpola concluded that the language of Harappan people is Sanskrit. c) Sir John Marshal used the radio-carbon dating method. d) The Harappan people believed in ghosts and used amulets as protection against them. 24 25  www.UPSCPDF.com V. State whether the following statements are true or False. LESSON 3 1. The Old Stone Age people practiced agriculture. THE VEDIC CULTURE 2. Microliths were used by the Mesolithic people. 3. Trade links existed between the Indus and Sumerian people. Learning Objectives 4. The Harappan people did not know the art of writing. Students will acquire knowledge about VI. Write short notes (Any three points). 1. The original home of the Aryans. 1. Chalcolithic Age 2. The Vedic Literature and their importance. 2. Megaliths. 3. The Rig Vedic Age and its culture. 3. Great Bath. 4. The Later Vedic Age and its culture. 4. Date of the Harappan Culture. VII. Answer briefly (100 words). The cities of the Harappan Culture had declined by 1500 B.C. 1. Write a note on the Old Stone Age. Consequently, their economic and administrative system had slowly 2. Trace the origin and evolution of the Harappan Culture. declined. Around this period, the speakers of Indo-Aryan language, Sanskrit, entered the north-west India from the Indo-Iranian region. 3. Name the important sites of the Harappan Culture. Initially they would have come in small numbers through the passes 4. Mention the probable causes for the decline of the Harappan in the northwestern mountains. Their initial settlements were in the culture. valleys of the north-west and the plains of the Punjab. Later, they VIII. Answer in detail (200 words). moved into Indo-Gangetic plains. As they were mainly a cattle- keeping people, they were mainly in search of pastures. By 6th 1. Write a brief essay on the pre-historic period in India. century B.C., they occupied the whole of North India, which was 2. Describe the socio-economic condition of the Harappan referred to as Aryavarta. This period between 1500 B.C and 600 civilization. B.C may be divided into the Early Vedic Period or Rig Vedic Period (1500 B.C -1000 B.C) and the Later Vedic Period (1000B.C - 600 B.C). Original Home of the Aryans The original home of the Aryans is a debatable question and there are several views. Different scholars have identified different 26 27  www.UPSCPDF.com regions as the original home of the Aryans. They include the Arctic of seven rivers. This includes the five rivers of Punjab, namely region, Germany, Central Asia and southern Russia. Bala Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Sutlej along with the Indus and Gangadhara Tilak argues that the Aryans came from the Arctic region Saraswathi. The political, social and cultural life of the Rig Vedic on astronomical calculations. However, the theory of southern Russia people can be traced from the hymns of the Rig Veda. appears to be more probable and widely accepted by historians. Political Organization From there, the Aryans moved to different parts of Asia and Europe. They entered India in about 1500 B.C. and came to be known as The basic unit of political organization was kula or family. Indo-Aryans. They spoke the Indo-Aryan language, Sanskrit. Several families joined together on the basis of their kinship to form a village or grama. The leader of grama was known as gramani. A Vedic Literature group of villages constituted a larger unit called visu. It was headed The word ‘Veda’ is derived from the root ‘vid’, which means by vishayapati. The highest political unit was called jana or tribe. to know. In other words, the term ‘Veda’ signifies ‘superior There were several tribal kingdoms during the Rig Vedic period knowledge’. The Vedic literature consists of the four Vedas – Rig, such as Bharatas, Matsyas, Yadus and Purus. The head of the Yajur, Sama and Atharva. The Rig Veda is the earliest of the four kingdom was called as rajan or king. The Rig Vedic polity was Vedas and it consists of 1028 hymns. The hymns were sung in praise normally monarchical and the succession was hereditary. The king of various gods. The Yajur Veda consists of various details of rules was assisted by purohita or priest and senani or commander of to be observed at the time of sacrifice. The Sama Veda is set to the army in his administration. There were two popular bodies called tune for the purpose of chanting during sacrifice. It is called the the Sabha and Samiti. The former seems to have been a council of book of chants and the origins of Indian music are traced in it. The elders and the latter, a general assembly of the entire people. Atharva Veda contains details of rituals. Social Life Besides the Vedas, there are other sacred works like the The Rig Vedic society was patriarchal. The basic unit of society Brahmanas, the Upanishads, the Aranyakas and the epics Ramayana was family or graham. The head of the family was known as and Mahabharata. The Brahmanas are the treatises relating to prayer grahapathi. Monogamy was generally practiced while polygamy and sacrificial ceremony. The Upanishads are philosophical texts was prevalent among the royal and noble families. The wife took dealing with topic like the soul, the absolute, the origin of the world care of the household and participated in all the major ceremonies. and the mysteries of nature. The Aranyakas are called forest books Women were given equal opportunities as men for their spiritual and they deal with mysticism, rites, rituals and sacrifices. The author and intellectual development. There were women poets like Apala, of Ramayana was Valmiki and that of Mahabharata was Vedavyas. Viswavara, Ghosa and Lopamudra during the Rig Vedic period. Rig Vedic Age or Early Vedic Period (1500 - 1000 B.C.) Women could even attend the popular assemblies. There was no During the Rig Vedic period, the Aryans were mostly confined child marriage and the practice of sati was absent. to the Indus region. The Rig Veda refers to Saptasindhu or the land 28 29  www.UPSCPDF.com Both men and women wore upper and lower garments made and Indra (Thunder). Indra was the most popular among them during of cotton and wool. A variety of ornaments were used by both men the early Vedic period. Next in importance to Indra was Agni who and women. Wheat and barley, milk and its products like curd and was regarded as an intermediary between the gods and people. ghee, vegetables and fruits were the chief articles of food. The eating Varuna was supposed to be the upholder of the natural order. There of cow’s meat was prohibited since it was a sacred animal. Chariot were also female gods like Aditi and Ushas. There were no temples racing, horse racing, dicing, music and dance were the favourite and no idol worship during the early Vedic period. Prayers were pastimes. The social divisions were not rigid during the Rig Vedic offered to the gods in the expectation of rewards. Ghee, milk and period as it was in the later Vedic period. grain were given as offerings. Elaborate rituals were followed during Economic Condition the worship. The Rig Vedic Aryans were pastoral people and their main Later Vedic Period (1000 – 600 B.C.) occupation was cattle rearing. Their wealth was estimated in terms The Aryans further moved towards east in the Later Vedic of their cattle. When they permanently settled in North India they Period. The Satapatha Brahmana refers to the expansion of Aryans began to practice agriculture. With the knowledge and use of iron to the eastern Gangetic plains. Several tribal groups and kingdoms they were able to clean forests and bring more lands under are mentioned in the later Vedic literature. One important cultivation. Carpentry was another important profession and the development during this period is the growth of large kingdoms. availability of wood from the forests cleared made the profession Kuru and Panchala kingdoms flourished in the beginning. Parikshat profitable. Carpenters produced chariots and ploughs. Workers in and Janamejaya were the famous rulers of Kuru kingdom. Pravahana metal made a variety of articles with copper, bronze and iron. Jaivali was a popular king of the Panchalas. He was a patron of Spinning was another important occupation and cotton and woolen learning. After the fall of Kurus and Panchalas, other kingdoms like fabrics were made. Goldsmiths were active in making ornaments. Kosala, Kasi and Videha came into prominence. The famous ruler The potters made various kinds of vessels for domestic use. of Kasi was Ajatasatru. Janaka was the king of Videha with its Trade was another important economic activity and rivers capital at Mithila. His court was adorned by scholar Yajnavalkya. served as important means of transport. Trade was conducted on Magadha, Anga and Vanga seem to be the easternmost tribal barter system. In the later times, gold coins called nishka were used kingdoms. The later Vedic texts also refer to the three divisions of as media of exchange in large transactions. India – Aryavarta (northern India), Madhyadesa (central India) and Dakshinapatha (southern India). Religion Political Organization The Rig Vedic Aryans worshiped the natural forces like earth, fire, wind, rain and thunder. They personified these natural forces Larger kingdoms were formed during the later Vedic period. into many gods and worshipped them. The important Rig Vedic Many jana or tribes were amalgamated to form janapadas or gods were Prithvi (Earth), Agni (Fire), Vayu (Wind), Varuna (Rain) rashtras in the later Vedic period. Hence the royal power had 30 31  www.UPSCPDF.com increased along with the increase in the size of kingdom. The king the Later Vedic period. The two higher classes - Brahmana, and performed various rituals and sacrifices to strengthen his position. Kshatriya enjoyed privileges that were denied to the Vaisya and They include Rajasuya (consecration ceremony), Asvamedha Sudra. A Brahmin occupied a higher position than a Kshatriya but (horse sacrifice) and Vajpeya (chariot race). The kings also assumed sometimes Kshatriyas claimed a higher status over the Brahmins. titles like Rajavisvajanan, Ahilabhuvanapathi, (lord of all earth), Many sub-castes on the basis of their occupation appeared in this Ekrat and Samrat (sole ruler). period. In the later Vedic period, a large number of new officials were In the family, the power of the father increased during the involved in the administration in addition to the existing purohita, Later Vedic period. There was no improvement in the status of senani and gramani. They include the treasury officer, tax collector women. They were still considered inferior and subordinate to men. and royal messenger. At the lower levels, the administration was Women also lost their political rights of attending assemblies. Child carried on by the village assemblies. The importance of the Samiti marriages had become common. According the Aitreya Brahmana and the Sabha had diminished during the later Vedic period. a daughter has been described as a source of misery. However, the Economic Condition women in the royal household enjoyed certain privileges. Iron was used extensively in this period and this enabled the Religion people to clear forests and to bring more land under cultivation. Gods of the Early Vedic period like Indra and Agni lost their Agriculture became the chief occupation. Improved types of importance. Prajapathi (the creator), Vishnu (the protector) and implements were used for cultivation. Besides barley, rice and wheat Rudra (the destroyer) became prominent during the Later Vedic were grown. Knowledge of manure was another improvement. period. Sacrifices were still important and the rituals connected with Industrial activity became more varied and there was greater them became more elaborate. The importance of prayers declined specialization. Metal work, leather work, carpentry and pottery and that of sacrifices increased. Priesthood became a profession made great progress. In addition to internal trade, foreign trade and a hereditary one. The formulae for sacrifices were invented and became extensive. The Later Vedic people were familiar with the elaborated by the priestly class. Therefore, towards the end of this sea and they traded with countries like Babylon. A class of hereditary period there was a strong reaction against priestly domination and merchants (vaniya) came into existence. Vaisyas also carried on against sacrifices and rituals. The rise of Buddhism and Jainism was trade and commerce. They organized themselves into guilds known the direct result of these elaborate sacrifices. Also, the authors of as ganas. Besides nishka of the Rig Vedic period, gold and silver the Upanishads, which is the essence of Hindu philosophy, turned coins like satamana and krishnala were used as media of exchange. away from the useless rituals and insisted on true knowledge (jnana) Social Life for peace and salvation. The four divisions of society (Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas and Sudras) or the Varna system was thoroughly established during 32 33  www.UPSCPDF.com Learning Outcome MODEL QUESTIONS After learning this lesson the students will be able to explain I. Choose the correct answer. 1. The Vedic Literature such as the four Vedas and the 1. The earliest of the Vedas Brahmanas and other later Vedic literature. (a) Rig (b) Yajur 2. The Rig Vedic polity, society and economy. (c) Sama (d) Atharva 3. Religious life of the Rig Vedic people. 2. Pravahana Jaivali was a popular king of 4. The changes during the Later Vedic period in the sphere (a) Videha (b) Kasi of polity and society. (c) Kurus (d) Panchalas 5. The increasing rites and rituals in the religious life of the Later Vedic people. II. Fill in the blanks. 1. The author of Ramayana was …… 2. The Arctic home for the Aryans was suggested by III. Match the following. 1. Nishka a) Later Vedic coin 2. Ushas b) Rig Vedic coin 3. Apala c) Goddess 4. Krishnala d) Woman poet IV. Find out the correct statement. One statement alone is right. a) Indra and Varuna were the important gods during the Later Vedic period. b) The position of women improved during the Later Vedic period. c) The caste system was not rigid during the Later Vedic period. d) The importance of Samiti and Sabha declined during the Later Vedic period. 34 35  www.UPSCPDF.com V. State whether the following statements are true or False. LESSON 4 1. The Aranyakas constitute the essence of Hindu philosophy. JAINISM AND BUDDHISM 2. The power of the kings had increased during the Later Vedic period. Learning Objectives 3. Iron was not known to the Rig Vedic people. Students will acquire knowledge about 4. The Varna system was thoroughly established during the Rig 1. The causes for the rise of Buddhism and Jainism. Vedic period. 2. Early life of Mahavira and his teachings. VI. Write short notes (Any three points). 3. Early life of Buddha and his teachings. 1. Vedic literature. 4. The spread of Buddhism. 2. Original Home of the Aryans. 5. Causes for the decline of Buddhism in India, 3. Position of women during the Rig Vedic period. 4. Religion of Rig Vedic period. The sixth century B.C. is considered a wonderful century in VII. Answer briefly (100 words). history. Great thinkers like Buddha, Mahavira, Heraclitus, Zoroaster, 1. Write a note on the Rig Vedic polity. Confucius and Lao Tse lived and preached their ideas in this century. 2. Mention the religious life of Later Vedic people. In India, the republican institutions were strong in the 6th century B.C. This enabled rise of heterodox sects against the orthodox VIII. Answer in detail (200 words). religion dominated by rites and rituals. Among them the most 1. Give a brief account of the socio-economic life of the Rig successful were Jainism and Buddhism whose impact on the Indian Vedic Aryans. society was remarkable. 2. Assess the political and social conditions during the Later Vedic Causes for the Rise of Jainism and Buddhism period. The primary cause for the rise of Jainism and Buddhism was the religious unrest in India in the 6th century B.C. The complex rituals and sacrifices advocated in the Later Vedic period were not acceptable to the common people. The sacrificial ceremonies were also found to be too expensive. The superstitious beliefs and mantras confused the people. The teachings of Upanishads, an alternative to the system of sacrifices, were highly philosophical in nature and 36 37  www.UPSCPDF.com therefore not easily understood by all. Therefore, what was needed Teachings of Mahavira in the larger interests of the people was a simple, short and intelligible The three principles of Jainism, also known as Triratnas (three way to salvation for all people. Such religious teaching should also gems), are: be in a language known to them. This need was fulfilled by the teachings of Buddha and Mahavira. - right faith Other than the religious factor, social and economic factors - right knowledge also contributed to the rise of these two religions. The rigid caste - right conduct. system prevalent in India generated tensions in the society. Higher Right faith is the belief in the teachings and wisdom of classes enjoyed certain privileges which were denied to the lower Mahavira. Right Knowledge is the acceptance of the theory that classes. Also, the Kshatriyas had resented the domination of the there is no God and that the world has been existing without a creator priestly class. It should also to be noted that both Buddha and and that all objects possess a soul. Right conduct refers to the Mahavira belonged to Kshatriya origin. The growth of trade led to observance of the five great vows: the improvement in the economic conditions of the Vaisyas. As a result, they wanted to enhance their social status but the orthodox - not to injure life Varna system did not allow this. Therefore, they began to extend - not to lie support to Buddhism and Jainism. It was this merchant class that extended the chief support to these new religions. - not to steal Jainism - not to acquire property Life of Vardhamana Mahavira (539- 467 B.C.) - not to lead immoral life. MAHAVIRA Vardhamana Mahavira was the 24th Tirthankara of the Jain Both the clergy and laymen had to strictly tradition. He was born at Kundagrama near Vaisali to Kshatriya follow the doctrine of ahimsa. Mahavira regarded all objects, both parents Siddhartha and Trisala. He married Yasoda and gave birth animate and inanimate, have souls and various degrees of to a daughter. At the age of thirty he became an ascetic and wandered consciousness. They possess life and feel pain when they are injured. for twelve years. In the 13th year of his penance, he attained the Mahavira rejected the authority of the Vedas and objected to the highest spiritual knowledge called Kevala Gnana. Thereafter, he was Vedic rituals. He advocated a very holy and ethical code of life. called Mahavira and Jina. His followers were called Jains and his Even the practice of agriculture was considered sinful as it causes religion Jainism. He preached his doctrines for 30 years and died at injury to the earth, worms and animals. Similarly the doctrine of the age of 72 at Pava near Rajagriha. asceticism and renunciation was also carried to extreme lengths by the practice of starvation, nudity and other forms of self-torture. 38 39  www.UPSCPDF.com Spread of Jainism Yasodhara and gave birth to a son, Rahula. The sight of an old man, Mahavira organised the Sangha to spread his teachings. He a diseased man, a corpse and an ascetic turned him away from admitted both men and women in the Sangha, which consisted of worldly life. He left home at the age of twenty nine in search of both monks and lay followers. The rapid spread of Jainism was Truth. He wandered for seven years and met several teachers but due to the dedicated work of the members of the Sangha. It spread could not get enlightenment. At last, he sat under a bodhi tree at rapidly in Western India and Karnataka. Chandragupta Maurya, Bodh Gaya and did intense penance, after which he got Kharavela of Kalinga and the royal dynasties of south India such as Enlightenment (Nirvana) at the age of thirty five. Since then he the Gangas, the Kadambas, the Chalukyas and the Rashtrakutas became known as the Buddha or ‘the Enlightened One’. He patronized Jainism. delivered his first sermon at Sarnath near Benares and for the next forty five years he led the life of a preacher. He died at the age of By the end of the fourth century B.C., there was a serious eighty at Kusinagara. famine in the Ganges valley. Many Jain monks led by Bhadrabagu and Chandragupta Maurya came to Sravana Belgola in Karnataka. The most important disciples of Buddha were Sariputta, Those who stayed back in north India were led by a monk named Moggallanna, Ananda, Kassapa and Upali. Kings like Prasenajit of Sthulabahu who changed the code of conduct for the monks. This Kosala and Bimbisara and Ajatasatru of Magadha accepted his led to the division of Jainism into two sects Svetambaras (white- doctrines and became his disciples. Buddha in his lifetime spread clad) and Digambaras (Sky-clad or Naked). his message far and wide in north India and visited places like Benares, Rajagriha, Sravasti, Vaisali, Nalanda and Pataligrama. It The first Jain Council was convened at Pataliputra by should be noted that he did not involve himself in fruitless Sthulabahu, the leader of the Digambaras, in the beginning of the 3rd controversies regarding metaphysical questions like god, soul, karma, century B.C. The second Jain Council was held at Valabhi in 5th rebirth, etc., and concerned himself with the practical problems century A.D. The final compilation of Jain literature called Twelve confronting man. Angas was completed in this council. Teachings of Buddha Buddhism The Four Noble Truths of Buddha are: Life of Gautama Buddha (567- 487 B.C.) - The world is full of suffering. Gautama or Siddhartha, the founder of Buddhism, was born in 567 B.C. in - The cause of suffering is desire. Lumbini Garden near Kapilavastu. His father - If desires are get rid off, suffering can be removed. was Suddodhana of the Sakya clan and - This can be done by following the Eightfold Path. mother Mayadevi. As his mother died at child birth, he was brought up by his aunt Prajapati The Eightfold Path consists of right view, right resolve, right Gautami. At the age of sixteen he married GAUTAMA BUDDHA speech, right conduct, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness 40 41  www.UPSCPDF.com and right concentration. Buddha neither accepts god nor rejects the Buddhist Councils existence of god. He laid great emphasis on the law of karma. He