American Civilization History PDF

Civilisation américaine Semestre 1 Nativism : hate of the immigrants. Immigration during the second part of the 20th century : The 1929’ Depression led to a decline in immigration. There was WWII and then after WWII refugees who wanted to go to America....

Civilisation américaine Semestre 1 Nativism : hate of the immigrants. Immigration during the second part of the 20th century : The 1929’ Depression led to a decline in immigration. There was WWII and then after WWII refugees who wanted to go to America. Some of them have no family in Europe anymore (killed during the war) especially of post war America who was an America of economic prosperity which attracted a lot of people. The immigration of the 4th wave is hardly European. Few western europeans wanted to go to America because in western Europe (in France, the uk…) prosperity slowly came back. Creation of system for health for poor people (In the UK : The NHS and in France la securité sociale). It removes the pushing reasons to leave Europe. From the middle of the 1950’s in Europe prosperity came back (les trente glorieuses en France). In the middle of the 1970’s America started being seen in Europe as a nation where there are crimes, drugs, pollution. The 4th wave is an immigration of hispanic and asian people. Political refugees from the eastern block. The land of plenty, land of the American dream for the hispanic and the asian people. Between 1965 and the end of the 1980’s about 12 million people arrived in the USA. Nowadays it is estimated that more than 1 million people want to go to America. The immigration by nationalities : - the hispanic (Spanish speaking people) : hispanic appeared in 1970 with a census. They come from di erent countries but at least they have two common features : they speak Spanish and they are catholics (70 % of them are catholics). The Mexicans : is not new. A need for cheap labor, unskilled labor to work in the elds in agriculture in California. At the beginning of the 20th century the number of Mexican Americans was estimated at about half a million people and in 2010 we have 40 million hispanics in the USA among them 12 million coming from Mexico or having Mexican parents illegally (they are very poor and they want to save money to pay a visa and a passport) by crossing the rio grande. Called the wetbacks. At the turn of the century illegal Mexican represented 70% of the alien population. A lot of them work in agriculture especially in California alongside Chinese people but they do not live in the countryside they live in big cities. Why ? Easy to disappear in big cities. Some of them commute between California and Mexico. Puerto Ricans : puerto rico was annexed by the usa at the beginning of the 20th century. It’s part of America but not a state. The Puerto Ricans were given the American citizenship in 1917 by the Jones- Shafroth. That means we have free entry to the usa. The quota act of 1924 is still active but for the Puerto Ricans no quota act. Puerto ricans are very poor many came after WiWII because especially in the 1940’s it became cheaper to travel to America by boat, ship. Puerto Rico close to the east coast so they settle in the big cities of the east coast like New York. In new york about 2,5 million people. Once they arrived they were rejected because they are unskilled and catholics. They are facing poverty, they live in ghettos. Cubans : cuba used to be under America control they especially support a dictator called Batista. A communist revolution in cuba and a man called Fidel Castro came to power in 1959 and so the cubans who were for the Americans they didn’t stay in cuba, they ed cuba because they would be killed. Field Castro develop a communist regime which is not a democracy. Until nowadays we have refugees from cuba economic and political refugees because to poor and could be sent to prison. The state where they usually go to is Florida because is the easiest way, shorter way. A million cubans arrived in Florida especially in Miami. They faced poverty but gradually they settled in America now they have representatives in Congres. Their children say were are cuban Americans but did not want to go back to cuba because cuba is still a very poor country. Filipinos : some in America before wwII but many after WII it was cheaper. Educated people and usually they got jobs but below their quali cations levels. They started living in California. Most of them are Catholics. No more catholics but Evangelical = developing trend ff fi fl fi  - the Asians : Korea : war in Korea 1950-1953 between north Korea and south Korea. America was involved in this war because America was supporting the southern part of Korea. Some Koreans left Korea to live in America. Around a million people ed to America. Among these people we have many Korean women called the war bride because they fell in love with an American soldier married him. They went to the west coast. Many open shops where you could buy fruits, vegetables. Gradually they climb the social level. Vietnamese : Vietnam was called Indochina and was controlled by French. France was at war in Indochina 1946-1964. They were beaten and they had to leave Indochina. The Americans had equipped the French army (weapons, uniforms) because France was very poor. After the French defeat America got involved in Vietnam and eventually there was a war which create a trauma in America. We have refugees who started coming leaving Vietnam to go to America especially after 1975 because we have a total communist victory in Vietnam. Because they had work for the Americans so they had to ee Vietnam and because they were very poor. Leave Vietnam by boat (small boats, shing boats crowded with people that’s why they were called the boat people. They settled usually in California because the state had more or less open minded policy towards refugees. Most of them were shermen and they go the Gulf coast that is were there is a shing community. People from Vietnam but also people from Cambodia and people from Laos and their children at the end of the 20th century = around 1.5 million people. Resentment from black people because they were helped and the government did not do many things to the black people. Created tensions. The di erent acts : The war brides Act of 1945 : allowed foreign born wives of American citizens who had served in the army to enter the United States. (Cf : Catch me if you can lm). Some of them didn’t have the time to marry. So in 1946 the ancée of American soldiers were allowed to enter the united states. They liberated Europe, concentration camps people who had no more family. Quota act and guilty feeling so American wanted to do something in 1948 congress voted the Displaced Persons Act which allowed europeans displaced by the war to enter the USA. Over four years 400 000 refugees by the war entered the USA. Among them many people from eastern Europe. As the cold war develops people wanted to ee communism, the eastern bloc. Because life is not exactly a free one. In 1953 we have the Refugee Relief Act which gave also refugee status to Europeans and non Europeans allowed about 200 000 people to enter the USA. Problem in Hungary in 1956 some people revolted against communism in 1956 refugees from Hungary were exceptionally allowed to enter the USA. In 1958 they voted the Hungarian Refugee Act to make life easier for those refugees in the USA. In 1957 the refugee escapee act important because status of refugee given for the rst time to people who were persecuted in or who tried to leave communist countries. Fear of spies among the refugees. Quota act Not an open door policy. In 1952 the McCarran-Walter Act which is a reinforcement of the 1924 Quota system which is even more restricted the condition for admission for « dangerous aliens » = o cial term but also for their exclusion and deportation. After 1965 there is a change, Congres vote a new act : the immigration and nationality act which completely repeal the 1924 quota system and favored family reuni cation and the coming of useful workers. It doesn’t mean there was no limit. The total number of people from western countries were of 120 000. The total number was higher 170 000 for the rest of the world. What about the limit per country = 20 000 people. But it is a much more understand act. Then, we have in 1980 the Refugee act (in the context of the Vietnam war but people coming from Vietnam) this act is a response to the people eeing Vietnam (the boat people). The act gave asylum to politically pressed refugees and it increased the number of political refugees essentially people from communist countries accepted in the usa. Another act is the act of 1986, which did not change many things but there are four aspects : the act gave amnesty to undocumented residents (3 million of them) if they could prove they had lived in the usa continuously since the end of December 1981 or before. It is not easy to prove if you are undocumented and you had live there. ff fi fl fi fi fl fl fl fi fi ffi fi fi  Employers had to check the eligibility of all their newly employed people (especially immigrants) if they had a proper document. If they employed undocumented immigrants they could facing touch sanctions including prison. The act of 1986 made it easier to growers to hire foreign agricultural workers to come to the usa (especially to Texas and California). It is the end of the cold war and so among nationalities in 1989 and 1990 the number of people from soviet union had increased. A new act in 1990 : the total number of immigrants allowed to enter the usa was increased to 700 000 people. Also in 1990 the reasons for excluded people were modi ed. Because soviet union is changing in 1990, communist people (if they say they are communist) were allowed to enter the usa. In 1996, a new act under Clinton, the congres is very conservative, it increased borders enforcement. It became more di cult to obtain political asylum. And for employers who wanted to hire legal immigrants they had to prove they could pay them. In 1997, the bene ts (health insurance) for the old immigrants and very poor were restored (because they had been abolished). In 1998, more bene ts for immigrants were restored and there was a new act increasing the number of temporary skilled foreign workers the American employers were allowed to bring into the usa. It is more understanding but for skilled people. After 9/11, under Bush Jr (republican) a number of measures were implemented to conduct background checks on foreign students. Some people were arrested (especially if they were muslim and deported some in Guantanamo bay). In 2007, Bush wanted a comprehensive immigration reform with an increased border security (more cameras, patrols). Employers would have to check their futur workers. But at the same time bush wanted to implemented a temporary guest workers status for undocumented people who already had a job in America. Why ? So they could travel back and forth between America and their own country. He also wanted to give them the possibility to eventually become American citizens. Obama presidency (2008-2016) : he wanted a comprehensive immigration reform. There was the DREAM project of 2010 (Development Relief and Education for Alien Minors). What did it consist ? It would have given (not voted) temporary residency and access to citizenship with the right to work to illegal immigrants who had arrived in America as minors but it was refused by Congres. So he tried something else and this time it was accepted : in 2012 the DACA policy (Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals). It protected about 700 000 illegal immigrants with no criminal records and who had arrived in America before their 16th birthday from being deported (many hispanics people bene ted from that) and they could get employment documents. Another positive thing links to the middle east and Syria : people started eeing Syria and in 2015 Obama announced a plan to welcome at least 10 000 Syrians refugees in America (Europe also welcomed Syrians refugees). It is known that in 2012 a record number of about 400 000 people who were deported under Obama. What can we say about nativism ? Is still there some resentment against immigrants people. A « nativism »has targeted many Spanish speaking people a more hidden nativism less openly racist. Still problem link to immigration : some Americans who hate the di erent programs to help refugees (whether they are federal or state programs). Sometimes this resentment come from Black Americans. Sometimes it can lead to problems, unrest riots. The 1982 Los Angeles riots especially involving poor black people and sometimes American hispanics who started attacking shops who were property of asian people. In 1985 in California, Californian voters said yes to a project to prohibit giving educational and welfare services to undocumented aliens. Some movements have developed referendums (referenda) to o cially make English the only state language. Nativism is bound to stay in America because immigration is still going on. The gures of the latest census (every 10 years a census in America). A census took place in 2020. The census con rmed that America still attracts immigrants because in 2020, 44.8 million foreign born in America. They represented 13.7 % of the American population. In 1960 the percentage of the foreign born population was 5.4 %. Who essentially are the people coming from among the foreign born : Mexico, the Philippines, people from India, China, Vietnam. They represented about 44%. If we look of the American people according to minorities, majorities. What is the total population in America at this time : 331.45 million people lived in America. How many of them classify themselves as white people : 235.4 million people they represented 61.6 % of the population that is to say a decrease of 8.6% when you compare to the 2010 census. The population is getting older. The rst minority of America is hispanics. fi fi fi fi fi ffi ffi fi fl ff fi  62.1 million people classify themselves as hispanics 18.7 %. An increased of 23% compared to the 2010 census. In 2040 hispanics will be the rst population in America. Afro Americans : 41.1 million people classify themselves as black people they represented 12.4% of the population it was an increased by 5.6% compared to 2010 Asians : 19.9 million people classify themselves as asian people they represented 4.8% of the population it was an increased by 35.5% compared to 2010. The natives Americans : 3.7 million people classify themselves as native Americans people they represented 1.1% of the population it was a very stable population an increased by 0.2% compared to 2010. Where do we have a high percentage of minority population ? : California , new Mexico, Texas, Hawaii. 1945-1966 From the end of the Second World War to The Golden Era/Years, Truman Years In 1945, Harry Truman left the White House in 1962. 1944 presidential elections, Roosevelt was still a candidate. At that time Henry Truman was unknown. Roosevelt died in April 1945. Truman became the president. Now he was facing a di cult job in 1945. The di cult job at home : 2 million soldiers need to go home. Convert a war time economy into a peacetime economy. But abroad the situation was not easy either : Europe was destroyed. Life is not easy until the 1950’s. Communism is spreading from the Soviet Union. « Better dead than red »motto of the 1950’s in America. What about the soldiers : the G.I bill it was wanted by Roosevelt. It is called the Servicemen’s Readjustment Act signed by Roosevelt in June 1944. The budget is huge : 13 billion dollar it was going to spent on veterans. Spent on education, a wider access to education (if veterans wanted to go to university the government would gave them money), vocational training (learn a new job), medical treatments, also on unemployment insurances ; loans for buying, building a house ; loans to create your own business. Gradually it was e cient. The number of soldiers in the army started going down. At the end of second world war 12 million soldiers in 1947, 1.5 millions soldiers in the army and in 1950 = 600 000 soldiers in the army. What about the economy : between 1945 and 1950 the government bought less guns… It need less military equipments it should had led to improvement but it did not. Because meanwhile people wanted to buy cars, equipment for the kitchen. It was possible because people had money. Wages had increased. Pent up demand. Thanks to this pent up demand and the money they had 140 billion dollar could be spend. And so, this revived the economy, factories started producing again. However there was a risk : in ation. Why ? : during the war prices and wages had been controlled and limited. Now it was no longer the case. And workers wanted higher wages and sometimes a 30% increase after the war. What about Truman ? : Truman said why not if it was reasonable, he said it was too much and so people went on strike in very important industries : cars industry, the mining industry, the oil industry, the railroad industry, the steel industry. A solution has to be found. The solution was to let the companies increased the prices of their goods (cars…). Very rapidly it was adopted for others industries but if you do that you create in ation. In 1946, we have a 6% increase in the cost of living. And in ation started and it is not going to stop. And then there was a problem for Truman : the midterm elections of 1946. The republicans won the midterms elections of 1946. Truman decided to stop ghting in ation. The republicans were furious and so after their victory in 1946 they started attacking trade unions because in their saying trade unions are friends with communism. They started diminishing the number of trade unions. In 1947, we have the Taft Hartley act directly targeting trade unions. ffi fl ffi fi ffi fl fi fl fl  A system was called the close shops (cellules syndicats) and existed in many factories. It means if you have a close scope in a company, if you don’t belong to the union of the close shop you could not join the factory and then employed. This was banned by the Taft Hartley act. Union shop was banned too = forcing people to join trade union to have a job = have to join the trade union after you had the job. The union leaders (AFL ; CIO) had to swear they were not members of the American communist party. Why is it problematic ? Against the 1st amendment. The presidential elections of 1948 : Truman is now candidate to be president. He sees himself as Roosevelt heir. He proposed a Fair Deal (he is walking into Roosevelt step cf New Deal). It is more or less an exntaesion of Roosevelt’s new deal : a higher minimum wage ; more people could get access to social security ; rents were controlled ; there was farm price support ; in big cities (Chicago, new York…) there was ghettos but new terms appearing slums so then a slum cleaning program. Electricity was brought from the south , more money was given to the TVA, electricity was brought to other rural communities , also a program for farm housing, to modernize farms. However, there were things congres refuse to vote (southern democrats members of the congres) congres refuse to vote a civil right bill , national health bill. An increase in government spending. There were also funds to buy motor rails by the federal government. Private investment in new factories, plants. More or less Truman succeed into turning a war time economy in a peace time economy. Civil rights : In 1946, Truman appointed a committee of civil rights to investigate violence against black people. 1896 : Plessy v. Fergus act = segregation is allowed. Truman wanted to recommend some measures. The committee recommend a few things : it recommenced the continuation of something created by Roosevelt The Fair Employment practices committee in June 1941 ; the creation of a permanent civil rights commission to investigate violence against black people ; the committee advised the federal government to refuse federal money to any state that was in favor of segregated schools and public facilities. It is not much, rather pieces advices. But for the congres it was too much then they started hated Truman. In July 1948, Truman banned racial discriminations in the employment of federal employees. Now if you were a black person you could become a federal employee ( for exemple work for the fbi). In July 1948, an executive order (which is not vote by the congres) signed by Truman ended racial discriminations in the armed forces. Not easy to implement in a few branches especially for the army. By 1960 the army is the most racially integrated organization in America. In April 1947, rst professional player in the baseball league : Jackie Robinson he signed with the Brooklyn Dodges his live was not easy when he travelled in the south (could not go to the same toilets as others). But people started noticing he was a good player, when he played in stadiums black and white people bought tickets to see Jackie Robinson his number was 42. Gradually sport became integrated. The double v campaign : victory against racism but also racism at home is continuing. Cf : lm 42 with Harrison Ford. Foreign policy under Truman : the beginning of the cold war The countries (50 countries) at war with the Axis (Germany, Italy, Japan) decided to make peace. They met in San Francisco. A shift of power from Europe to America. The charter of the United Nations. At the end of the war, Europe is very weak. Europe was destroyed and they were going to have freezing winters. A lack of fuel, of coal to warm houses and a lack of food. Bridges were destroyed, railway stations. Europe has to be rebuilt. People are extremely unhappy. People grow against the people in place, the government. Turn to be in favor of communism. Communism is very close in Europe (eastern part of Germany occupied by soviet troops). Communism is spreading in eastern Europe. Expression created by Winston Churchill (after 1945 defeated in the elections) told about an « iron curtain » which had fallen in Europe. Truman doctrine marks the beginning of the policy of containment. Goal is to contain communism. In march 1947 Truman made a speech to congres controlled by the Republicans. In that speech Truman asked the congres to vote a budget of 400 million dollars to help two countries at risk of communism : Greece and Turkey. Strategic locations link to oil. To control oil is fi fi important. To protect them from outside pressures (pressures from the soviet union). America is gradually going to help. For Europe there was the Marshall plan named after a former Marshall Marshall who was now a secretary state the goal is help western Europe to prevent communism to establish themselves in europe. The Marshall plan was o ered to the Soviet Union. To the soviet people it was an Imperialist scheme. But western Europe said yes. 16 western countries shared a budget of 13 billion dollars (receiving clothes food… from America). Between 1948 to 1951, western europe received help which helped it to recover. It is the establishment of containment. Events leading to the beginning of cold war : In Tchekoslovakia there was a coup d’état in 1947, the communists took power without true democratic elections. That is a signal that danger is there. The blockade of Berlin between June 1948 and may 1949. Berlin used to be Hitler’s capital city. Berlin had a speci c status. Berlin was to be divided into 4 occupations zones : one under the occupation of the Americans (checkpoint Charlie : border between the American zone) ; a British zone ; a French occupation zone ; a soviet zone. Staline wanted to test the French the British and the American. To see how ready they were to protect their zone. Indirect confrontation between the soviet and the Americans ( see Vietnam). Staline prevented the allies to bring supplies to their occupation zones. They were using railway lines and Staline cut the railway lines. No more food to the zones. The allied used a massive airlift. And they dropped food in their zones and it worked because when the blockade ended in may 1949 2.2 million Berliners they started living normally again. They had received 1.5 million tonnes of food, fuel, supplies…. A deterioration between the relationships between the USA and the Soviet Union. Now America is developing a military relationship with Europe especially with NATO created in April 1949 when 12 nations essentially western nations allied to the USA they signed the north Atlantic treaty. The communist bloc responded but later in 1955 and they created the Warsaw treaty. Loss of china for America. China. In 1949 china became a communist country. After WWII we have a civil war developing in china between nationalists supported by the Americans they received weapons, training, 2 billion dollar and the communists led by Mao Zedong. A civil war developed for 4 years and the nationalists were defeated and had to ee China and went to Formosa and they renamed it Taiwan. The united nations had a security council which decides on everything they have 5 permanent members (The USA ; the Soviet Union ; Great Britain ; France ; China). China controlled by the nationalists. The soviet union is alone in this security council. Until 1971, the security council seat was for Taiwan. Korea became a problematic country. During WWII Korea was occupied by Japanese. Korea was liberated at the end of WWIII by the soviet troops in North Korea and South Korea was liberated by US + British troops. The country became divided into two parts and two separate governments : one controlled by the communists and one controlled by the western countries. Then, the soviet troops gradually left. In June 1950, the north Korean troops crossed the 38th parallel they wanted the whole Korea to become a communist country. This was an o cial border (38th parallel) = violation of an o cial border. There was an international reaction. The UN reacted and the security council decided to react. Soviet union was boycotting the security council due to Taiwan. The UN security council decided to sent troops, America sent about 350 000 soldiers to help south Korea, the British and French sent troops too. General Mac Arthur (former commander in chief of the paci c during WWII). It was not easy at the beginning to push back the north Korean troops. China sent help to the north Korean troops. MacArthur was the leader of the troops. Let’s nuke them (use the nuclear bomb). Truman replaced Mac Arthur by Ridgway in 1951. The soviet union got the atom bomb in 1949. The war ended in July 1953 (1950-1953) with a country divided into two parts. What was the cost for America ? : more than 33 000 American soldiers died ; 103 000 American soldiers were wounded. The consequences of the cold war in America : During the 1950s the development of the Red Scare a very sad episode within American history. Very bad atmosphere developing because of the cold war. Some rights link to the constitution are not respected. In march 1947, Truman signed an executive order to create procedures for an employee loyalty program, for the federal employees. Now federal government employees could be « disquali ed » in case of treason, espionnage, in case of membership in or sympathetic association with the communist party. It goes against the 1st amendment = free speech. About fi ffi fi fi ff ffi fl  2700 people lost their jobs because of loyalty security reasons. Those people were red and about 12 000 people left their jobs because of too much pressure. The creation of a new organisation in 1947 congres voted the national security Act which created the National Security Council (still exist nowadays) and the Central Intelligence Agence (CIA). In 1947, a reaction from congres controlled by the Republicans. There was a committee called the un-American house activity which is not a new committee it had been created against Roosevelt New deal in 1938. It started asking people from Hollywood, cinema industry. Why the cinema industry ? : soft power (way to in uence people by mild methods) Hollywood producers, writers, actors to come to Washington DC and answer one question (are you now or have you ever been a member of the communist party ?). the House is asking/ordering people to go to Washington DC and answering this question. If you refused to answered this question you could be sent to prison. Some people collaborated (gave names of communist people they knew in Hollywood). Ronald Reagan gave names of communist people. Walt Disney gave names because he was fade up with trade unions. Other people refused to answer because they said it was their right. The House didn’t like. In 1948, 10 people who had refused to answer the question became known as the Hollywood 10 were sentenced to 1 year in prison and then they were blacklisted (could no longer work) by the Hollywood Industry. Then other people started being victim for exemple Jules Dassin he had to ee America, went to live in France ; Charlie Chaplin. Witch hunt (chasse aux sorcières). Scarlet letter. Famous trials : Alger Hiss used to work for the state department before WWII and was accused during the red scare of having given secret documents to soviet spies in 1948. He said it was false. But in 1950, he was tried and was convicted to 5 years in prison. In 1950, a network of British-American spies was discovered in America and in Great Britain, the spies were tried and they were accuse of having given the secret of the atom bomb to the soviet union. The consequence of that is that in January 1950 Truman agreed to develop the hydrogen bomb. When the soviet got the bomb many American citizens lost their sense of security because the soviet union could sent the bomb in their country. People were selling houses out of the radiation zone. Among the people arrested there was a couple : Julius and Ethel Rosenberg. They were accused of espionnage. They were tried and sentenced to death and both executed in 1953. Left two children behind. The president of USA (Eisenhower) did not pardon them because he didn’t want to be seen as a soft on communism. The witch hunt was linked to McCarthy. The Americans are becoming worried about communism (better dead than red). In 1949 there was an opinion poll that showed that 68% of the population wanted to bann the communist party. It is against the 1st amendment. 83% of the population wanted communist to register with the federal government. Many B movies showing extraterritorial beings invaded and destroying things (representation of America hysteria and of the soviet invasion). In 1950 an obscur Senator called McCarthy a republican and made a speech in congres and in that speech he claimed that he had names of communist people. People started believing him. There was an inquest and found nothing. He started accusing others. The FBI was developing inquest on the people denounced by McCarthy. The leader of the FBI, Hoover is problematic. Politicians have to act. Hysteria developing and in 1950 congres controlled by the demarcated voted the McCarran internal security act problematic because it demanded that communist and communist linked organisations had to register with the Attorney General. Foreigners who declared themselves communists or who had lived in communist countries were no longer allowed to enter the USA. Another victim is Oppenheimer, father of the atom bomb. He was investigated and lost in 1954 his security clearance because it was said that in his past he had link with communist. The second reason was that he had expressed his doubts about the H-bomb and also doubts about the strategic bombing. McCarthy was more powerful would order people to come and his hearings were broadcast on television. Eisenhower didn’t want to be seen in soft on communism so he refused to pardon the Rosenbergs and he signed an executive order in 1953 reinforcing the checking of federal employees. The war in Korea eventually ended and McCarthy became more accessible on television. As the war in Korea was reaching its end McCarthy popularity started diminishing in fl fl fi  January 1954, 60% of the population still believed him. In June 1954, only 34% of the people believed him. People saw him now as a bully. The end of Korea war accelerated his defeat. In December 1954 he was censored by congres. McCarthy wanted to investigate the army. The army is the defense against communism and so if he investigate he is going to weaken the army. Eisenhower said that « The buck stops here ». McCarthy disappeared and died in 1957 because of a liver cancer. Eisenhower 1952 left the presidency in 1960. Made 2 terms. Was a popular guy, had a nickname « Ike » used to be the commander in chief of the allied forces in the western front. He was behind D-day. Was a republican candidate and during the campaign one of his slogan was « it’s time for a change ». At the time the Korean War is on. As the candidate for the republican ticket is Richard Nixon. His program : The name of his program was called « dynamic conservatism ». What is conservatism on his program ? : money. Budget cutting is important for him (not given too much for the federal government). They are for free trades. The republican administration ended price control, wedge control. It also reduced the nancial help for found prices. The dynamic was more or less the help human beings. The basics structures of the New Deal were not attacked, they limited their cost. In 1954 and in 1956, social security was extended to professional people, to domestic and farm workers, the clerical workers, to the professional soldiers. Federal minimum wage was increased. The federal spending on public health was increased. Law income housing building was extended. America was living a period of economic prosperity. We are talking about the Golden Years especially the middle of the 1950s. Golden years : The growth national product (GNP) is how healthy a country is. It doubled between 1945 and 1960. People are more or less happy and they have some trust in future. Time of the baby boom in America. The baby boom peak is in 1957. Between 1945 and 1954 increased by 30%. Around 40 million people. Another characteristic of the Golden Years is a migration of population. Why ? Because in agriculture there were technologic advances, better machines, humans beings are less needed. We have about 20 million American who left the countryside because they were jobless to live in the cities trying to nd jobs. Among those people we have black people, they left the south to got the north of the usa = great migration. It has an impact on the north. Chicago is de nitely in the north, doubled is black population during the Golden Years. It is going to have an impact on the north. In the north not physical segregation but still facing racism. Expending consumer culture. For homes, garden in the suburbs. The proportion of home owners increased by 50%. More and more credit is available. A much wider access to credit is available. Consumer credit increased by 800% between 1946 and 1950. They started buying a television set. In the middle of the golden years, how many television set are sold by day ? 20 000/day. In 1960, we have about 50 million television set in American homes. The buy on credit homes, television set, cars, washing machines, dish washers. Much more a ordable for the middle class which are developing because of the GI bill (more access to education, become middle class people and banks give them credits). As the middle class is developing the credits are. Development of suburbia. One guy contributed developed suburbia William Levitt ; Levittowns. During the 1950s the suburbs developed 6 times faster than cities. Who lived in the suburbs ? Couple in their forties and their children. America seemed like a paradise for many Europeans because of consumer culture. People work in cities centers and lived in the suburbs so they bought cars. Great number of cars being produced. 8 million cars being produced. They started building highways an increase in the building of highways. The federal inter state highway act of 1956 meant that the federal government nanced the highway 90% of the cost. 60 000 kilometers of highways. The government spend more and more money on highways. In 1950 they have spent 429 millions dollars. In 1960 they spent 3 billion dollars in highways. We start to have the urban sprawl. Culture of conformity which is present at work especially in the jobs created. People are less and less self-employed. More and more worked for big companies ( they are executives in big companies). A corporate culture developing. Based on collective cooperation, achievement. fi fi fi fi ff Development of a third sector type economy. Conformity for women : women were expected to stay at home. To take care of the children and to look after the house. Women started drinking because they were unhappy at home. At the same time, we have also the search for comfort, a peaceful life because of the war. Searching for their roots, started being members of clubs (gardening clubs, car clubs, involved in many church actives, Tupperware clubs for women). You have also to have the latest material. A kind of criticism of this culture of conformity. Juvenile delinquency developing during the 1950s (because their parents were not happy). Development of the drive-ins. Juvenile delinquency in working and middle class people. Turn people to rock and roll (Elvis Presley, Richie Vallens) said to turn young people to delinquency. What about black people ? : link to the supreme court. In 1953 Eisenhower choose Earl Warren (contributed to the end of MacCartism). It came in 1954, it is called Brown vs board of education of Topeka. This law was made by the supreme court. When the supreme court make a decision everyone has to respect it. It prohibited segregation in schools. (Black and white children could go to school together). Brown was the father of a little girl who had to cross a railway line, dangerous. In 1909, NAACP (national colour people). 1896 : separate but equal. Placey Vs Fergusson. In 1956 in the southern states segregation was still happening. The state of Alabama (very racist state) in Montgomery in December 1955 a black woman was coming back of work member of the NAACP, Rosa Parks. Black people organized a boycott of the buses of Montgomery. It was organized by a local church man called Martin Luther King, a local pastor. He had a new message, which was of non violent civil rights disobedience. A good speaker, charismatic man. The supreme court in 1956 said that separate but equal was no longer a correct state for the law. In 1957 Martin Luther created his own organization the SCLC (southern christian leadership conference of 1957). The civil rights act of 1957 proposed by the Eisenhower administration it created within the justice department, it created a civil rights commission and civil rights division. Goal to prevent anyone for interfere with the right to vote for black people (it is the 15th amendment). In 1959, in the South hardly any black voter had been added to the voting list. Congres made sure that the act will not be too e cient In Arkansas in Little Rock, the NAACP selected 9 black top students to enter little rock high school. The governor of the state was furious he asked the national guards of Arkansas to prevent the 9 students for entering the school which was not legal. The federal government and the NAACP went to court. The 9 students had to ee the school because there was a mob outside the school of white people. In 1957 the situation became uncontrollable. In September 1957 there were the midterms elections and so Eisenhower send the army to protect the students. He federalize the national guards of Arkansas to protect the students. The students stayed 1 year. The governor closed for a year the high school. Foreign policy : Eisenhower put an end to the Korean War he also put an end to the witch hunt in 1954 when MacCarthey wanted to investigate the army and Eisenhower said no especially at the time of Cold War. Yet people were still afraid of communism. They wanted a balance of terror. The soviet union has the bomb and so the usa. Indochina will be called Vietnam and was controlled by the French af(er WWII there was a communist resistance that developed against the French. French sent the army equipped by the Americans. France was to weak after WWII couldn’t produced weapons. France fought the communist resistance and was defeated in 1954. The leader of the communist who was Ho Chi Minh was very strong in the north of Indochina and so he established a communist government in the north of Indochina whereas in the south we have someone who is allied to the Americans called Neo Dinh Diem. The American through the CIA started training Dime’s troops and police. From 1954 we have the beginning of the Americans prison in Indochina. In 1960 how many Americans soldiers are there in Indochina : about 2000. There was an agreement in 1954 between the north and the south : Genova Agreement. Which planned elections in the north (communist) and the south with Diem. In the south Diem refused to organise elections and he started eliminating all his opponents. He started growing unpopular. Catholics priests live in Indochina and converted some people. Diem is a catholic but in a mainly Buddhist country. Did not respect the Buddhist religion, grew popular. So in the south a resistance to Diem is developing and was called the Viet Conga (name of the communist resistance in the south). fl ffi The relationship with the communist world (eastern europe) there are ups and downs. Downs : Hungary was liberated by the soviet troops and under the control of the soviet union. Elections in 1956, a moderate communist came to power in Hungary. He made a huge mistake and announced that Hungary was going to leave the Warsaw Pact. The Soviet tanks invaded Hungary the moderate leader Nagy called disappeared and was replaced by a die hard communist Kadar. America protested. Economic sanction in Hungary. Space race : W. Von Braun designed modern rockets behind by the space program of America. Former nazi. (Ariane program was developed by the nazis). They had a success the Sputnik an arti cial satellite lunched by the soviets in October 1957. The Americans grew afraid the soviet had the power to have a huge rocket to send a satellite into space. If they can do that they have a rocket to send an atom bomb. So America grew afraid of a possible nuclear hit by the Soviets. America su ered a blow. America protected their allies in europe. They sent new missiles to Europe to equip their European basis to protect western europe against a threat by the soviet union. They was in america a crash program in science education to boost and to develop the education linked to Math and sciences. They was also the national defense. Education act of 1961 to continue educated people in maths and sciences. 1958 : congres voted national aeronautic and space agency better known as the NASA. NASA’s goal : to coordinate research and development in the space program. Big development of the milarial industrial complex. Leader of the soviet union in 1959, Khrushchev, successor of Staline. In 1959 he visited the USA, he went to NY, to Washington, LA, San Francisco to the United Nation and went to the Great planes in iowa because he wanted to develop modern farming in USSR. The Camp David (place of holiday for the us president). In may 1960, the soviet union brought down a military American plane ying very very high over the soviet union which was detected they sent a rocket and captured the pilot. He was later exchanged with a spy. Tensions again. Cuba : used to be control by America through puppet leaders and there was especially a military dictator called Batista, was helped by the Americans. Financial, farming interests in cuba. There was a communist resistance in cuba developed led by Fidel Castro. For 3 years he fought Batista and won 1951.Cuba was controlled by the communist party. America grew afraid because cuba is near Florida. Castro started killing his opponents or people who collaborated with Americans. Fidel Castro nationalized the foreign owned properties and they were usually Americans.he started a land reform to give more land to the people of Cuba and the Americans were not happy. Castro wanted money and asked Americans for money and the Americans said no. They imposed sanctions on cuba especially on the sale of sugar, cane sugar. Cuba could no longer sold his cane sugar to other countries. Castro turned to the soviet union for help and they accepted. Cuba sent sugar to the soviet union and in exchange the soviet union would sent equipment and oil to Cuba. Eisenhower was furious he could see a threat developing. He suspended diplomatic relationships with cuba. It is going to be the case for many years they stop having a cuban ambassador in America. He secretly allied the CIA to train and to equip a force of Cuban refugees to invade Cuba, to get rid of Fidel Castro. That plan started under Eisenhower. He was reelected in 1960. Nixon was his vice president. The second term of Eisenhower , an economic slow down, less money from taxes, and so it is more di cult to invest. A federal budget de cit. And abroad, downs with Cuba, China F Gary Powers (his plan was U2). However Eisenhower put an end to the war in Korea and the civil rights thanks to him an open minded court. He is going to leave and spoke with his successor John Kennedy. He warned Kennedy about how to use the presidential power, warning about Vietnam and the power of the militaral industrial complex. 1960-1968 The Troubled Sixties. John F. Kennedy of iris extraction. He was elected when he was 42 quite a young elected president. First catholic president. And was not obvious that American people would elected a catholic president as Joe Biden. Was elected in November 1960 and had a vice president who was Lyndon B Johnson. Kennedy comes from the north in a rich family. He is a facing a southern democratic congres. That is why Johnson was chosen because he was from Texas from a poor family and knew how to talk to the congres. Kennedy didn’t like Johnson because he was looking ffi fi ff fl fi down at Johnson. Kennedy had a very narrow majority. The great electors system may look not like a narrow victory and his opponent as Nixon. First presidential television debate between Nixon (not at his ease) and Kennedy (was on medication what make him look cool during the debate). Plan : New Frontier appeared in the inaugural speech « my fellow Americans ask not what your country can do for you, ask what you can do for you country « technology, space, human rights especially ghting poverty and easier access to education but he was not really interested in black people situation. Human rights and peace in the world and with the soviet union. New housing act to ght poverty 5 billion dollars to get rid of ghettos. The minimum wage was increased and the social security bene ts was increased. He wanted to educate Americans for peace and launched a new organization called the Peace corps (civil organisation) young Americans became volunteers on education in poor countries such as Africa. An accelerated program to land astronauts on the moon before the end of the decade. Wanted to reduce taxation to boost the economy. An act voted in 1962, for tarif cuts (droits de douane) between the USA and the countries belonging to the European Union. (At the time was of 5-6 countries) Civil rights movement his developing. Why ? Philosophy of non-violence is spreading throughout the usa thanks to the Montgomery boycott. In February 1960, at the time of Eisenhower in North Carolina, four black people entered a dinner place, they sat down at a counter where you can read « whites only » and they waited to be served for hours before being dislodged by the police. This was repeated in several cities especially in the southern states. A beginning of a new movement called the sit-in movement. Now white students started helping black people and black students. Creation of a new movement called the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee, SNCC. In 1961, an organisation called CORE (congres of racial equality) sent from the north on buses a group of white and black people usually students to travel to the south, sited next each other. To test a federal ruling banning segregation in the buses if this was respected in the south. This was called the Freedom riders. They were violently attacked in the south especially Mississippi and Alabama they do not react because they respect nonviolence. The buses were burnt. This violence and violence against people doing the sit-ins was seen every day on television. Violence could not be longer hidden. This make them appears as victims. It attracted national attention to the south and the civil rights get supporters.. Robert Kennedy is the Attorney General and his more interest in the fate of black people. In 1962, (year of the midterms elections), the governor of Mississippi Ross Barnett tried to prevent a black student called James Meredith joining the university of Mississippi. Robert Kennedy disagree and sent federal marshals to have the law respect the supreme court respected. And the marshals were attacked in Mississippi, federal troops had to be sent. And so Meredith managed to register to the university. George Wallace, racist man in 1963, tried to prevent black students joining the university of Alabama once again federal marshals had to be sent to protect the students who enter the university. In may 1963, in Birmingham in Alabama, when non violent demonstrators demonstrated and were violently beaten by the local police under the order of Eugene « Bull » Connor, local police chief. They used dogs, re hoses, electric cattle prods. Martin Luther King was arrested by Connor’s men, count on the violence to get supporters and television. These images made John Kennedy sick. Hoover had put Kennedy under surveillance, because wanted to be still at the head of the FBI, blackmailing people. Hoover discovered that Kennedy was not always faithful to his wife. The march in Washington in august 1963 when King made that famous speech « I have a dream » in front of a huge crowd they were about 200 000 people. White and black people at the foot of the Lincoln memorial largest civil rights demonstration in history. And we have now several factors playing in favor of black people. King is growing more and more popular within the black and white population. The bombing of a protestant church in September 1963 that killed 4 young black girls and chocked the nation. Kennedy decided to act he made a speech to the nation and said « racial discrimination has no place in America life or law » he wanted a new act and sent to congres a civil rights bill to end discrimination in public facilities, to desegregate public schools and to protect black voters. Congres control by the Southern democrats. Kennedy was murdered or assassinated (if it’s political) in November 1963. When he was killed the project was dead. Johnson was there to saved the project. The Foreign policy fi fi fi fi  There was a very bad start because of Cuba. Kennedy inherited the Eisenhower administration plan for an invasion of Cuba. When he arrived a the white house Kennedy trusted Eisenhower. He gave a green light for the attack when Castro opponents landed in the Bay of Pigs. And they attacked cuba (Castro opponents) in April 1961. Americans soldiers are not involved. America ships are o the coast of cuba. It was a total disaster. The opponents were captured, the American ships had to leave. So not good at all for Kennedy. A second blow which came before the Bay of pigs, is link to soviet cosmonaut call Youri Gagarine rst man in outer space (the space above the blue zone of Earth) he turned several times around the earth and people could hear his voice over the radio. The rst man in space is a soviet, not American. 12 April 1961. Crisis which developed in europe, in June 1961 Kennedy travelled to europe, he visited France and he was with his wife, they met de Gaulle and then they went to Vienna where Kennedy met Grutchev, older than Kennedy, leader of the soviet union, try to get the upper hand of Kennedy , though Kennedy was too young. The soviet leader threaten to limit the western access to west Berlin. The negotiations were very tensed. Kennedy went back home and reacted to the threat. He mobilized the army reserved and also mobilizes the national guard units. The federalized the national guard unit. The soviets started building a wall in August 1961 it became known as the Berlin Wall. It was to prevent, protect the eastern part of Europe. In east Germany, the communist part, many people wanted to ee, to go to west Germany, west Europe. In June 1962, Kennedy went to west Berlin and made a speech to the west Berliners « Ich bin bin Berliner ». Cuba missiles crisis : consequence of the Bay of Pigs. Why ? Castro wanted some protection and asked the soviet union for protection and the soviet union said yes. What kind of protection ? Nuclear missiles to cuba. America was watching cuba very high in the sky. In 14th October 1962 of the U2 planes discovered missiles sites under construction in Cuba. America was now worried. The military forces wanted to attack and some people suggested a naval blockade. Kennedy had to make up his mind. On the 22nd October 1962 he made a speech and told people that missiles had been discovered and said what he had opted for. He played on words. He opted for a naval quarantine. It is not an act of war. And he was right to play on words, to be cautious. The risk was a nuclear war. Because no true communication between America and the soviet union. 13 very tensed days. The soviet leader didn’t want to appear weak. Especially with the Chinese kind of competition with China. Seen as a weak man by china. Grutchev said publicly that he didn’t care. Tensions decreased after. Missiles didn’t reach cuba and an agreement was reached between the soviet union and America on cuba. The soviet agreed publicly not to put any missiles on cuba. In exchange they got a promise by the Americans that America will never invade cuba. America kept one thing an American base in cuba : the Guantanamo base. Kennedy and Grutchev were veteran. For better communication there was telephonic line between Moscow and Washington : became known as hotline or redline. Still problem in soviet union :food, agriculture. America agreed to sell wheat to the soviet union. America agreed to remove missiles from western europe especially from Turkey, from Great Britain and Italy. A side e ect of that, not involving directly America, a treaty was negotiated also between the soviet union and Great Britain to stop nuclear testing in the atmosphere. In September 1964 : negotiated a treaty. The situation in Indochina : started being called Vietnam. Diem is not popular, leader of the south and so the Vietcong is developing getting more supporters and equipment (weapons, munitions, uniforms, bombs…) from the north. Ho chi Minh trail : secret road to bring weapons… to the south. Diem also didn’t make any reform, didn’t help the people. He physically, verbally attack not only the communists but also the Buddhists which is the dominant religion in Vietnam. And sometimes buddhists organized very spectacular demonstrations with the buddhist monks and those demonstrations in Saigon they would sit down peacefully, pour petrol over themselves and sometimes would light them and die. People, Kennedy became shocked. Diem and his family reaction make it worse. Diem’s sister in law started talking about barbecued monks. Kennedy was furious and he grew fade up with Diem, the guy is useless. When the CIA in Vietnam discovered a coup d’etat against Diem Kennedy didn’t do anything. Diem was killed on 2nd November 1963 and replaced by generals also useless. On the 2nd November 1963, Kennedy died. At the time the number of American advisers in Vietnam started increasing. When Kennedy died we start to begin about American troops about 16 000 troops. The quagmire (expression used to talk about the Vietnam war) is developing. Many people were shocked when Kennedy was killed. Kennedy remained a charismatic president. ff fi fl ff fi  Lyndon B. Johnson : successor of Kennedy. Experience with Congres, from the south. In 1964 he became president and left the presidency in 1968. Became president on board of a plane that bring the body of Kennedy back to Washington DC. People who worked with Kennedy didn't ’t like Johnson because he was from the south, considered as a redneck, was looked down, not the Kennedy good looks, didn’t have Kennedy charisma , older, came from a very poor background but exemple of the American dream. Kept feeling as an outsider during the time Kennedy was alive. Used to be the senate democratic leader so he knew Congres. He was also a great admirer of Roosevelt and wanted to do something that look like Roosevelt had done to the poor people and civil rights. However had no experience as far as the foreign policy is concerned wich will cost him his presidency. What he did at home ? : The Great Society : vast social program to help the poor especially. And the biggest one since the New Deal. There are still poor people in America : about 50 million, revealed by a book called The other America written by M. Harrington in 1962. Quite a shock for people. To ght poverty he made an act : economic opportunity act voted in 1964 the budged is quite big : 1 billion dollars. What are these dollars made for : in inner cities, there is the creation of a job crops for younger people, program fo disadvantaged preschoolers, for the poor college students there was a work-study jobs, some help for the poor farmers. Kind of peace call but for the poor neighborhoods called VISTA (Volunteers in service to America). For the poor neighborhoods : community action program. Beginning of something work more or less but forgotten because of the disaster of the war of Vietnam. He was remembered for Medicare and Medicaid. Medicare an insurance program for old people for health. Medicaid is to help the very poor to cover for the medical payments. There was also a budget of 1.5 billion dollars for elementary and secondary education. Then we also have something to get rid of the ghettos. It is an act in 1965 voted by Congres, the housing and urban development act => 3 billion dollars for urban renewal. In 1966, there was also help for the very poor families to pay the rent. And in 1966 we have the creation of a new department is called the department of housing and urban development. Also in 1966 we have an act to help living people living in the Appalachians. Higher education act to help poor college students to get a scholarship. Social aspect to Johnson policy : to follow Roosevelt footsteps. Unfortunately for Johnson some of these programs were badly conceived and there were usually well not founded and unfortunately there was some fraud cases as well. Johnson inherited Kennedy civl rights bill. The cil rights of 1964 which outlawed racial discriminations in hostels, restaurants including dinners, other public accommodations. The attorney general could bring segregated schools to justice and he also meant that federal programs and private employers had to eliminate discrimination. Sort of commission called the equal opportunity commission which published a ban on job discrimination by race, religion, or sex. Martin Luther king organized a new march. In 1964 Martin Luther King got the Nobel peace price. 1965 : voting rights act which protected the right to vote for all American citizens. Johnson launched a new program called A rmative Action which in France is known as discrimination positive which said that private companies, private institutions which got federal money had to keep a percentage of their jobs for minority people and including women. Creation of a system of quotas in 1965. First black people entering the federal government. In 1966 Johnson appointed the rst black cabinet member called Robert C. Weaver (secretary of the housing and urban department). First black to enter the supreme court justice in 1966. A very well known person : Thurgood Marshall one of the top lawyers for the NAACP. But for some black people not many about 15% especially young people think things were not moving fast enough. There is a fragmentation of the civil right movement. Especially in city centers people grew more and more unhappy, riots in city centers especially in summer time ( ats there is no air condition). Riots in Los Angeles in 1965 in a very poor neighborhood called Watts. The cost is very high : 14 million dollars of damages and 44 dead people. Not the only riot we can mention, riot in the summer of 1966 where in Chicago where there are ghettos, in Cleveland, in 1967 riots in Detroit. The riots showed who were the poor people in big cities. And they also showed in those big cities the non violent tactics were not really e cient. They worked in the country side. 70% of black people lived in big cities. Radicalism appearing within the movement in 1966. A new slogan : Black Power. King is not for black power because he seen himself as an American. Change of point view : people seen themselves as black before being American. In some movements the white students were excluded by black people for exemple from the SNCC. Sometimes by people who become more violent there was a leader Stokely Charmichael leader of the SNCC who said white people get out. Black people called for the use of violence against white people, include the use of guns. fi fi ffi ffi fl That radicalism is embodied by Malcom X (black leader found a new movement called the Black Muslims movement, why does he used a X because his family name was the name of a white owner). Another movement was the Black Panthers movement (created in 1966 by Huey Newton and Bobby Seale they always had a gun on them). Radicalism only represents a minority of people. (15% people). That radicalism pushed King to look at the situation of black people not just in the south but also in the north because in the north black people have also problems, they need houses, jobs, don’t want ghettos anymore. At the end of the 1960s a new slogan : Black is beautiful. Black people were encouraged to be proud of their history, their culture (including music) and many adopted the afro hair style. People are less and less interesting in the civl rights much more focused on the foreign policy especially Vietnam because their sons is ghting in this war. In August 1964, 2 Americans ships o the coast of North Vietnam, on international waters, said they were attacked by north Vietnam which was not true. The Americans provoked the incident. The congres reacted and voted the Tonkin Gulf Resolution, in august 1964. Why it is important ? To be used in the war in Irak, kind of green light, free hand given to the president to do whatever he thinks is necessary to win. The resolution said he authorizes the president to do all necessaries measures to repel any armed attacked against the forces of the usa. Escalation. D-day landing in Vietnam in march 1965. At the end of 1965, 184 000 Americans soldiers in Vietnam who are not professionals. In 1966, 385 000 American soldiers. In 1968, 500 000 American soldiers. They started bombing north Vietnam in 1965. Sometimes the pilots were captured by the north Vietnamese troops and sent to war prisoners camps where they were very badly treated and sometimes they were tortured. John McCain was a pilot during the war of Vietnam and was tortured (he is republican and could no longer uses his arm). They started also using chemical defoliants because there are many forests in Vietnam to make trees lose their leaves. Started using napalm (jellify petrol). Body counts every week in television : number of ennemies killed. A blow came to the American moral = Tet o ense at the end of January 1968, it is an attack organized by the north and the Vietcongs inside south Vietnam, quite successful. Why ? They manage to occupy parts of southern Vietnam especially parts of Saigon, capital city of south Vietnam. Manned to occupy and attack the American embassy in Saigon. It proved that north Vietnam and vietcongs were powerful contrary to what America was saying. A counter attack by the American troops and the southern Vietnam troops. They pushed back the enemy. But the impact is very big in America. Johnson popularly started decreasing. In 1967 his popularity was of 47%. After the Tet o ense, January 1968 it was down to 27%. The impact of the Vietnam war at home : The war is more or less seen on live on television, on the news, not censored pictures (wounded soldiers, young soldiers crying). The impact of those images. Dead bodies of young American soldiers and the civilian population. The American population started growing confused. Are we the good guys or are we the bad guys ?the cost of the Vietnam war which is also escalating. In 1968 it was calculated that to kill an enemy the cost was of 322 000 dollar. Johnson had developed a program to ght poverty at home now the cost which is spend on this program is of 53 dollars. More and more Americans are growing against the war. More and more demonstrations in America against the war. Movements against the war such as the SDS (student for a democratic society), or FSM (Free Speech Movement). There were some violence between the students and the police. In 1968, veterans are coming back. They are telling people what they did, what they saw which is chocking and frightening the young men which are going to Vietnam. Then, some men refuse to go in Vietnam and ed in Canada and called the Draft evaders. We have about 500 000 who ed to canada. Sometimes they gathered and will build their draft cards. Johnson is becoming more and more isolated (elected in 1964 as a vice president). He realized the main issue will be Vietnam and though he was not going to win. In march 1968 he announced that he was not going to run for the nomination of the democratic party. The rest of his presidency they are many sad events. In April 1968 Martin Luther King was murdered in Memphis, Tennessee. In June 1968, Robert Kennedy, wanted to be a democratic candidate and was murdered on the 5th June 1968. A democratic convention which took place in Chicago in august 1968 they had a candidate called Hubert Humphrey, they were demonstrations against the Vietnam war in Chicago, they were riots and violent repressions from the Chicago police. 500 people were wounded this was seen on television. Very bad publicity for the democrats before the elections. On November 1968 many Americans fought the democrats were responsible for Vietnam which was not true they inherited a situation. Some of Johnson programs Medicare, ff fi fl ff ff fl fi  Medicaid are not so popular because they were expensive in the eyes of certain people. The republicans were well organized and they had continued the policy of having the south, the south turned republican. This is a pivotal moment. The republican candidate was Richard Nixon (was vice president of Eisenhower so remind to people the gold old days, a positive choice for the ticket). He promised peace with honor and was elected and his vice president was Spiro Agnew. He had to face a democratic control congres. There is also a sign that racism was still there in America G.Wallace was the 3rd candidate didn’t get many votes = 3%. Unfortunately Vietnam impacted the presidency of Johnson and cost his great society program. The decline of the presidency 1968-1980 In America society is changing. We have a new society in some parts of America. First of all because of some political movements. It is called the New Left. That movement appeared during a protest against Vietnam war. When the American troops started leaving Vietnam, they switched their interest to environment. Some members during the last year of the war became quite violent, called the Weathermen they will plants bombs on o cial building they will warned but sometimes people were not evacuated on time. The counterculture = kind of reaction to the consumerism of the golden years. Reaction from the children during the 1950’s who are now young adults they started developing the counterculture : sexual freedom, use of drugs, listening to rock music, started having long hair, wearing jeans, in uence of Indian culture, oriental clothings, Woodstock Festival of August 1969, a huge amount of people about 500 000 people went there the organizers didn’t expect this amount, the weather was not too nice ; a taste for natural food ; creation of the communities of hippies (lived together in tents). In painting : the pop art = Andy Warhol. In musicals, broadway = Hair. Books = Lolita. Cinema = Bonny and Clyde ; Easy Rider. Ten years later those people will become yuppies a raise of materialism, best cars, best ats… development of feminism developed by Betty Friedan in 1963 she wrote a book called the Feminine Mystique. She denounced the hypocrisy of the American society which said that men and women were equal but which celebrated women in lms… as housewives. With other women she created in 1966 an organization called NOW (National Organization for Women) and they started ghting for more rights for women and they were successful. In 1972 the educational amendment act which required colleges to have an a rmative action program for women, for employing women as faculty members, and more women as students. In 1972, the equal right amendment voted by congres. There was a problem : for an amendment voted to the constitution you need a signature of 70% of the state. This procedure will last 10 years. In 1982 there was no 70% of the state which said yes and so it was not aded to the constitution. In 1973, a supreme court decision, Roe vs Wade made by the supreme court it authorized abortion during the rst three months of pregnancy. This decision was abrogated in June 2022 by another supreme court because 3 supreme court justices appointed by Trump who are evangelical. Minorities : hispanics are developing wanted to be recognized organized strikes in the farms of California. They had a leader for those strikes called Cesar Chavez for better wages for the hispanics. They won because the consumers in California were on their side. They starred boycotting some products by companies which didn’t paid hispanics. Better wages increased and get better conduits. Native Americans : their number is increasing in 1960 500 00 ; in 1970 800 000. They copied the Afro-Americans. They created their movement to ght for their rights the AIM in 1968 (American Indian Movement). They started visually striking occupation of a land that was their. In 1969 they occupied Alcatraz island. Indians people resulted in sit-ins, they did it at the bureau of Indian a airs in Washington DC. In 1973 they marched on Wounded knee (tourism attraction nowadays which was the last battle fought between Americans soldiers and Indians). They went to tribunals to get some land back. They signed a peace treaty with the federal government which are o cial documents. They started to get some pieces of their land. They will built casinos run by Indians. In 1970 the American government o cially recognized their speci city of the Indian nation. fi ffi ff fl fl ffi fi fi ffi fi fi ffi  All this proved that American society was less united that he would be during the golden years, becoming slightly a divided nation. Reagan started calling the forgotten Americans (working class people who faced unemployment). The war in Vietnam Nixon had promise a change but slow to come. Between 1968 and 1973 about 20 000 American soldiers died. Vietnamization of the war = meaning giving combat missions to the south Vietnam forces. They have American training, equipment. Withdrawing of American soldiers. In 1969 we have 540 000 soldiers. In 1972 it diminish 157 000. In the beginning 1973 : 50 000. At the end of 1973 : 20 000. Under Nixon widening, extension of the con ict to bordering countries with Vietnam, more especially Cambodia. In 1969, the American airfare started bombing Cambodia because they said they were communists basis in Cambodia and so they bombed. It only stop in 1973, 4 years of bombing Cambodia. Problem : Cambodia is at peace with america, no reason to attack Cambodia this way. People started protesting. In 1969, the use of the My Lai massacre. It is a massacre committed by American troops in villages, reveal by the press in 1969 but happened in 1968. People are protesting. Students demonstrating again. In may 1970, in Ohio, at Kent State university clash with the police and 4 students were killed by the police. Among them, we have black people. Publication of the pentagon papers, published in June 1971, in the New York Times. It is a shocked for the American population because it is revealed that the military people, secretary of state knew that it was impossible to win in Vietnam more or less since 1966-1967. This is creating a malaise. Congres reacted (controlled by democrats). Congres voted something very important that will last 40 years The War Powers Act of 1973 that limited presidential powers in case of war, sending American soldiers abroad. What does it say ? If troops were sent abroad, the president had to tell congres within 2 days. Then after 2 months abroad the troops had to be withdrawn, had to leave the foreign country unless congress approved they're staying abroad. Act will be used during the rst war against Irak. The negotiations took place in Paris. It was not easy. American wish wanted the north Vietnamese to leave south Vietnam and they wanted the Vietnamese president called Thieu to stay in power in south Vietnam. The north Vietnamese position was : they wanted to stay in south Vietnam they wanted Vietnam to have only one government, a unify government. The American position started changing, impact of the demonstrations it forces Nixon to change and the elections. Now they said when the American troops leave it is not a problem if north Vietnamese are still in Vietnam. Who was the negotiator : Henry Kissinger (born in Germany, jewish ed Germany when hitler came to power and he graduated from university and landed to work with the president example of the American dream). The north Vietnamese wanted Thieu to leave and the Americans refused. The negotiations stopped in 1972. Nixon to force the north Vietnamese to negotiate again he ordered a massive bombing on 2 north Vietnamese cities in 1972 : Haiphong and Hanoi, very badly destroyed. It worked they talked again and a peace treaty was signed in January 1973. The agreement was 2 separate government in Vietnam (communist one in the north, pro American in the south). The Vietcong are still in the south. So the south Vietnamese are not too happy. But Nixon made a promise to the south Vietnamese don’t worry if there are a problem I am going to send American air force. In march 1973, the last American soldiers left Vietnam. However it is not over. Why ? Because in 1975 the vietcong helped by north Vietnam massively attacked in the south and did America help : no. north Vietnamese and vietcong captured Saigon (capital city of south Vietnam) in April 1975. Saigon became Hochi Minh city and Vietnam was uni ed under a communist government. In 1975, in Cambodia they country had been destabilized by the American bombings and the pro west government collapsed it brought to power the Khmers rouges (communist people, Cambodians but they massacred about 30-40% of their population in concentration camps). America after and during the Vietnam war was as divided as it had been during the civil war. The cost was on 150 billion dollars. And we have the human cost : 58 000 dead American soldiers + those MIA (missing inaction, soldiers never been found). It is a defeat for the military, for America. The Vietnam generation of young students. 27 million people part of the Vietnam generations : former soldiers, many black people, people who ed to canada, the draft. Many people demonstrating categories. Division between the working class students not protecting by their fl fi fi fl fl  studies and they went to Vietnam. Middle calls and upper class who were protected by their studies sot they didn’t go to Vietnam and demonstrated. Slow division of the country. Kind of progress : recognition of China. Started in 1971 with secret negotiations carried out by Kissinger. In 1972, Nixon o cially visited China, recognized china as a communist country. New policy with the soviet union : policy of détente. Why do we have that ? More or less of the same number of nuclear weapons. And so they want to limit tensions. They are negotiated a treaty. And that treaty was called the SALT treaty signed in 1972 between America and the soviet union (Strategic Arms Limitation Talks). In Chile, in 1970 they were elections. A moderate man from the left came to power, Salvador Allende, but for Nixon he was a communist. He didn’t like Allende, he didn’t like the reforms in Chile to give more land to people. Nixon ordered the CIA to do something they organized a coup d’état against Allende. It was successful. Instead they put a military man in top of Chile called Pinochet. He created a military dictatorship in Chile a very violent military dictatorship. Problems in the middle east under Nixon. Why ? Because of tensions between Israel and Arabs nations. In 1973, during a jewish celebrations called the Yom Kippur the Arab nations attacked Israel. The Israeli population reacted they managed to push back the attack. And they even managed to capture some Syrian territories. Spot of very high tensions there. There is oil in the middle east. They were negotiations to end the Yom Kippur War. They obtain a cease re in 1973, between Israel and Arab nations but no true peace. No country for the Palestinians. It started an oil crisis. The rest of Nixon policy at home : he is more or less blocked by congres. He continued the space program. Big victory in July 1969 when Neil Armstrong became the rst man to walk on the moon. Civil rights under Nixon : Nixon didn’t like civil rights. He tried to slow them down but congres blocked him. Under Nixon, we have more and more schools being desegrated. A rmative actions was extended to universities. Under Nixon, welfare state voted by congres, also extended. How ? Social security bene ts were extended, and food stamp funding was extended (kind of coupons). It is also that under Nixon that the right to vote was given to young people aged 18 in 1971, with the 26 amendment (last one voted). Congres voted a clean air act in 1970 over Nixon veto. Congres voted a new agency called the environmental protection agency (The EPA). What is the in uence of Nixon ? In uence on justice. Was able to nominate 4 supreme court justices after those nominations the supreme court became very conservative. Congress accepted. Beginning of the economic crisis that will hit America and europe. It started partly because of Vietnam. The in ation rate started increasing. In 1967, the cost of life was of 3%. In 1973 the cost of life was of 9%. In 1974, it stood at 12%. Prices went up and unemployment went up. In the 1970s unemployed is slowly reaching 6%. Economic recession and in ation. It was called stag ation. What are the other causes ? Johnson welfare program very expensive and the Vietnam war very expensive. A trade de cit with Japan, Germany, the Yom Kippur. America helped Israel during the Yom Kippur war and so the Arab. Countries were furious at America so they increased the price of oil by 400%. It created a big problem. Queues at petrol stations, factories reduced their production, o ces and schools had to close down and the in ation rate went up. Another reason for the economic crisis and unemployment : baby boom. Now they are adults and entering the labor market and so between 1965 and 1980 the work force increase by 40 %, not enough jobs for everybody. How did Nixon react : he wanted to reduce the budget de cit then he increased taxes and tried to cut the budget. Congres refuse (system of check and balances). He wanted to reduce the circulation of money in America, less money, less cents. Wall Street didn’t like it, it create a crash. He tried to limit in ation. He froze wages and prices for 3 months no impact on in ation, it failed. He tried 2 devaluation of the dollar, it didn’t work. Rustbelt Watergate In June 1972, 5 burglars were arrested in the Watergate building, in Washington D.C. the hostel was the headquarters of the democratic party for the coming elections. The police nd out that those burglars were linked to the White House. And the press, heard about it especially the Washington post and 2 journalists called Carl Bernstein and Bob Woodward they began their investigation. It is a slow investigation and meanwhile we have the presidential elections and Nixon is reelected in 1972. Judges investigated, and they looked for news. For exemple, they learnt that Nixon had an habit in the White House in the oval o ce anytime someone entered the fl fl fl fl fl fi ffi fl fi ffi fi ffi fi fl ffi fl fi fi  oval o ce he switched on a tape recorder. Richard Nixon tried to block the judges. Some people from his government resigned as a kind of protection. But it was not enough and so justice started interested. In July 1974, the supreme court itself, ordered the president to release the tapes of his o ce. It felt cornered because they was something else threatening an impeachment procedure which had started in the house of representatives in 1973. Congres is not for Nixon. Before the impeachment procedure could be voted he resigned to avoid the shame of the beginning of August 1974. Left the white house and now a new man has to step in, the vice president Gerard Ford on the 9th August 1974 and leave in 1976. He has a problem from the beginning. Not elected with Nixon in 1972 but Spirow Agnew left in 1973 because he had accepted bribes. Nixon had to choose a new vice president and then chooses Gerald Ford. People didn’t like him because he had not been elected in 1972. Not able to stop the economic crisis, he obtain a few successes abroad but in 1975 north Vietnam is attacked and didn’t spread American troops. Nixon was to go to court for lying. Gerald Ford gave Nixon his pardon and so Nixon did not go to court in September 1974 and then lost his credibility. When he stood as the republican candidate in 1976 he lost. They elected a democratic candidate Jimmy Carter in 1976 and had to leave in 1980 because people were disappointed. Some people look at his policy as an aberration, kind of transition between the Vietnam era and the new era. Not well-known but he positioned himself as the contrary of Nixon, kept repeating I won’t lie to you, came from the south, was born-again Christian, evangelicals voted for him. What about the foreign policy ? Wanted peace back in the middle east. He invited the leader of Egypt, and the leader of Israel to negotiate for é weeks in America. They went to Camp David. They reached an agreement that brought some peace back that is Israel accepted to give some land back to Egypt in exchange of the recognition by Egypt of the right to Israel to exist in 1978. It was a success for Carter. He tried to negotiate with the soviet union, to continue with the policy of détente. He signed SALT 2 in 1979. However they year a problem developed. In 1979 the soviet union invaded Afghanistan. America was furious and so Carter when he went back home told congres to do not ratify Salt 2. It was signed but never implemented as a protest. Carted started a boycott of the Olympic Games of 1980 in Moscow. (America and Great Britain didn’t go). He relaunched a new missile program. The loss of Iran will cost him his presidency. Iran for many years had been ally to America. It was a modern country, nancially helped by America. Many modern equipment, women went to school. However not a democratic country led by the Shah. The police of the Shah used to oppress opponents, torturing people. The population of Iran grew angry because they wanted more democracy. In 1979 they revolted. All of this was fulled by religious leaders called the Ayatollahs. The people of Iran got rid of the Shah. The Shah had to ee Iran with his family. He nd refuge in America. A religious regime started developing in Iran. Now America has lost Iran and in Iran people are furious against America because the Shah is in America they want to judge him. They asked America to gave him back. They started demonstrating against America especially in Teheran. In November 1979, they attacked the American embassy in Teheran. The employees of American embassy, 65 Americans became hostages. There were negotiations. Carter tried a military action. He ordered the American army to tried something but failed. They sent helicopters to Iran, to free the hostages but the helicopters crashed in the desert. A failure for Carter and the military. Economic crisis is a second reason why Carter loose. Lot of blacks, hispanics, women were appointed thanks to Carter to federal jobs. Carter saw the draft evaders and gave them its pardon. Some draft evaders went back in America and some stayed in Canada. However, the economic crisis developed. He did not managed to limit in ation. In 1980 in ation stood at 12.1%. Unemployment is there, quite high, 7.5%. If you wanted to borrow money, interest rate stood at 20%. In 1979, they were tensions again in the middle east between Israel and the Arab countries. A second fuel crisis. Carter reacted badly. He told Americans to not take their cars. America was importing 50% of its use of oil came from the middle east. People are very unhappy with him. People were fed up with détente, fed up with America being weak. They thought that the country was no longer a dream country. This and the loss of Iran cost him his presidency. Ronald Reagan in 1980 (his slogan Make America great again). The Republican Years 1980-1992 ffi ffi fi fl fl fl fi  Ronald Regan was elected in November 1980 and reelected in 1984. He had promised to make America great again. He was a very good analyst of the public mood. Probably because he used to listen to people when he was an actor. He had some charisma. Total contrast to carter. Elected with an important majority. What led to his election ? : there were di erences between the two candidates. Carter seem boring and he called free entreprise, capitalism « evil ». He wanted Americans to be frugal (spend less). Reagan is courageous, he proved it in March 1981 there was an attempt to kill him. He had promised a revolution of ideas, less taxes, less intervention from the government in the economy. He wanted t reinforce the national security, had promised the restauration of moral values. Changes within the American population : baby boomers were growing older and many of them were moving to the conservative sun belt, state of the south (Florida, Louisiana) some of them move to the west (especially in California). In the south there is the Bible Belt. Birth of the New Right. Who are people of the New right : people who wanted patriotism to increase, they wanted to ght the counter culture, the hippies etc. they were for the death penalty. And they liked Regan campaign because he was in favor of traditional family values. They usually belong to the working class and to the lower middle-class. Link to this New Right there was a religious awakening with televangelists, (more and more televise channels, time to the satellite) among them Pat Robinson, Jerry Falwell, Jimmy Swaggart they were very popular. They started embodied the Moral majority, they were for free entreprise, were against big government, against abortion, for payers in schools, defend traditional values. Regain policy at home from to 1994 and what was implemented : Reaganamics. The old democratic idea of creating economic growth by increasing the public sector was wrong and counter productive. So they wanted to reduce the public sector and so it meant cutting domestic federal spending and cutting taxes (reducing health for old people) if you reduce taxation for the citizens, companies you give people more money to grow, to work, to produce, to create their own companies. This is going to develop the economy, is going to reduce the de cit. We have an act the Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981 which decreased citizens taxation by 25%. It also decreased the taxes of capital gains by 30%. We have a reduction in federal spendings. How ? There was a cut of about 35 billion dollars in educational programs, in cultural programs, in housing, food stamps and in school lunches as well in 1981. The government help was going to be given by only the truly needy people (people who had to proved you couldn’t work because you were disabled or look after your children became harder to proved it). Poverty increased. In 1979 we have about 11.9% of the population is considered as poor. In 1983 it is 15.3% of the population. Meanwhile, we have a massive increase in spendings for the defense. Expression used by Reagan « it was to close the gap ». Because America was behind the Soviet Union. Famous episode li