Scramble for Africa and the Berlin Conference PDF

Scramble for Africa and the Berlin Conference Africa Nigeria Why do we have people speaking English in Africa? Colonization Colonization → verb to colonize (UK: colonisation) « send settlers to a place and establish political control over it » and/or «settle among and establish control over the i...

Scramble for Africa and the Berlin Conference Africa Nigeria Why do we have people speaking English in Africa? Colonization Colonization → verb to colonize (UK: colonisation) « send settlers to a place and establish political control over it » and/or «settle among and establish control over the indigenous people of an area ». Colonialism « the policy or practice of acquiring full or partial political control over another country, occupying it with settlers and exploiting it economically. » Imperialism « a policy of extending a country’s power and influence through colonization, the use of military force and other means. Cartoon central figure in white which is a personification of the England Britannia. Flag with written ‘civilization’(an important concept). The African flag reads ‘barbarism’, a word used to villainize the indigenous. Civilians or soldiers fighting behind Britannia. Britannia (personification of Britain) is stepping on 2 African men surrendering to power. What justifies this? Civilization was used to justify this violence. When did the concept become dangerous? It was thought that white civilization was better. It was a dehumanizing weapon, the “dark side” of civilization. Once it takes on a sacred aura, the opposite becomes evil. What is considered sacred = not to be questioned Civilization = 1.power and sufficiency of political authority, 2.the enjoyment of leisure, 3. development of philosophy or the arts and sciences R. G. Collingwood (1889-1943) Three dimensions of civilization: 1)​ Social civilization 2)​ Economic civilization 3)​ Legal civilization Scramble ( an eager or uncontrolled and undignified struggle with others to obtain or achieve something)for Africa (know it). Cake metaphor to describe Africa: ‘beautiful slice of that magnificent cake that is Africa’ quote from King Leopold II of Belgium that he writes in a letter to his ambassador in London: “I do not want to miss a good chance of getting us a slice of this magnificent African cake.” European powers in the Scramble for Africa: Britain, France, Germany, Belgium, Portugal  1)​ Cartoon Cecil John Rhodes. Arms outstretched, astride the entire continent of Africa. 'Archetypal image of British imperial power.'" Represents Helios the god of sun. Rhodes city in ancient Greece and the name of the man. Represented him as the Rhodes colossus. Represented in this gigantic form/ superiority. Rhodes’ speech uses racism to justify the violence against ‘lowest specimen’. 2) The Berlin Conference 1884-1885 ‘Eating Africa’. A turning point. Civilization = economic gain. BC -> Regulate trade and open navigation on the two chief rivers (The Congo and the Niger) of Africa Cartoon on Berlin Conference. Man with mustache Otto Von Bismarck. Africa is split ready to be served, given to the others. Africans rulers aren’t included, and were denied access because they were seen as background people Nibble : to bite gently / to eat or chew in small bits. « After 1880, the nibbling dramatically changed to aggressive grabbing and swallowing of Africa’s belongings. » ​ Grab : to take or seize by or as if by a sudden motion or grasp. *Berlin Conference every European country was there + Ottoman Empire and the US, except Switzerland. 3 major tasks: 3rd is not really the purpose « The dimension of the ‘true interests of the natives at heart’ are algebraically equal to the length, breadth and depth of the Whiteman’s pocket ». → Economic motives Yinka Shonibare's Scramble for Africa (2003) features 14 life-size fiberglass mannequins dressed in Dutch wax printed cotton. By permission, National Museum of African Art, Smithsonian Institution NPR Shonibare's art contains references from across the globe and combines details that span centuries. Among the artist's varied explorations of contemporary issues: water shortages, climate change, class, race and exploitation. He is exploring global issues. Consequences of the Berlin Conference “Inherited political geography of Africa is as great an impediment to independent development as her colonially based economies and political structures. The colonial political geography derives from the Berlin Conference of 1884-85, which laid down the rules for the European partition of the continent. What were drawn as colonial boundaries have survived the transition from colonies to independent states and, more surprisingly, 25 years of African independence.” In simple words: The division of the African land made during the Berlin Conference by Europeans; and the economy and political structure put in place by their colonizers are what makes African independence difficult to reach. “In African Studies, many of us believe that the foundation for present day crises in Africa was actually laid by the 1884/85 Berlin Conference.” In simple words: many of the issues in Africa today are a result of the Berlin Conference. “ We have artificial ‘nations’ carved out at the Berlin Conference in 1884, and today we are struggling to build these nations into stable units of human society.” In simple words: Europeans made these ‘nations’ that weren’t there before and it’s hard to make them into stable societies Get to know Nigeria Country situated in West-Africa Nigeria’s neighbor countries: Cameroon, Chad, Benin, Niger ❖​ 36 states (Nigeria went from having 3 states in 1960 to 36 in 1996) ❖​ National capital: → Abuja [əˈbuːdʒə] ❖​ Largest city: → Lagos [ˈleɪɡɒs] ❖​ Two main rivers: → the Niger river → the Benue river Niger refers to 3 things: A river, a country AND a Nigerian state POPULATION ❖​Largest population in Africa ❖​According to the last UNPF estimates: Nigeria’s population is projected to reach 230 million inhabitants this year ❖​The most populated cities are -​Lagos [ˈleɪɡɒs] -​Kano, Ibadan, Kaduna, Port Harcourt, Benin City and Maiduguri ETHNIC GROUPS → more than 250 different ethnic groups → 3 main ethnic groups: The HAUSA The YORUBA The IGBO IMPORTANT DATES 1807 – Abolition of the Slave Trade 1861 – British annexation of Lagos (Official colonization begins) 1884-85 – The Berlin Conference 1903 – Last British protectorate is established 1914 – The various protectorates are unified to form Nigeria 1960 – Independence 1967-1970 – the Biafra War IMPORTANT PERIODS 1850-1903: Transition to British colonial rule 1903-1929: Colonial society 1929-1960: Nationalist movements and independence 1960-1970: Instability and civil war 3 mains ethnic groups and where they’re situated: 1.​ HAUSA north western part of Nigeria (strongly influenced by the arab culture, mainly muslims) 2.​ YORUBA south western region of Nigeria (christians or muslims) Europeans British came and designed the country and put together the ethnic groups and they didn’t have a lot in common. That’s why the national feeling was difficult to cultivate. 3.​ IGBO south east majority were christian → Diverse nigerian population HISTORIO ​ +​ GRAPHY ↓​ ↓ Of or pertaining to history ​ Process of writing or recording Historiography. Quote by Nigerian historian Toyin Falola: “It’s the study of the writing of history, it’s looking at the way in which people have written history in the past, and looking at the way people are writing history now, and it’s looking at the biases and assumptions that they bring to the writing of history, there’s quite complex ways of asking questions about how people write history, how they investigate the sources, how they create narratives and its asks the overarching question, I suppose, whether history tells the truth.” Summary: Analysis of how history is written; study of the writing of history Nigeria’s road to independence: 1.​ Transition to a colonial society ~ 1861-1914: Colonization of the Nigerian region ~ 1870s-1914: The Scramble for Africa ~ 1861-1903: Colonization of Nigeria 1861 = Brit. Annexation of Lagos (official colonization begins) 1903 = last Brit. protectorate is established. 1914 = Amalgamation of the southern and northern protectorates. Forming one unified colonial state. ~ 1870s-1914 The Scramble for Africa As European rivals tried to secure their spheres of influence, Nigeria gradually fell under British rule. 1884-85: The Berlin Conference formalized the Scramble for Africa Protectorate: the relationship of superior authority assumed by one power or state over a dependent one. 1901 Nigeria was covered with protectorates and the British were everywhere Before 1920 and during 1920 A first generation of « European-educated » Nigerians There were protests in Lagos and Isolated resistance movements ABA riots or Women’s War The “riots” or the war, led by women in the provinces of Calabar and Owerri in southeastern Nigeria in November and December of 1929, became known as the “Aba Women’s Riots of 1929” in British colonial history, or as the “Women’s War” in Igbo history. Thousands of Igbo women organized a massive revolt against the policies imposed by British colonial administrators in southeastern Nigeria, touching off the most serious challenge to British rule in the history of the colony. The “Women’s War” took months for the government to suppress and became a historic example of feminist and anti-colonial protest. Riot = ​ A violent disturbance of the peace by a crowd; an outbreak of violent civil disorder or lawlessness. ​ Violent disturbance of the peace, esp. by a crowd; civil disorder During the 1930s ❖​ New generation of young nationalists (with Western education) ❖​ Kinship unions (based on ethnicity) ❖​ Trade Unions ❖​ Nigerian Women’s Union ❖​ Lagos Youth Movement → Nigerian Youth Movement (1936) ❖​ In short: their demands = « Nigeria for Nigerians » (Falola). Pan = involving all of a (specified) group or region ex. Pan-Nigerian movement = a movement involving all the various groups of Nigeria Pan-African movement = a movement involving African nations During the 1940s ❖​ World War II ❖​ Government took control of the Nigerian economy (negative) ❖​ Nigerian men lost their lives ❖​ Government invested in infrastructure and social services (positive) ❖​ Colonial government worked on a 10-year plan to lead Nigeria towards independence. Nigeria would be a sovereign country. They financed education to prepare it to become a sovereign state During the 1950s Post-WWII had a positive impact on nationalism, they realized Britain only provided improvements to Nigeria when it served their way. ❖​ Talks about the best way to govern Nigeria due to the 3 powerful regions that would compete for power (regional assemblies, vs central government). ❖​ 1954: Nigeria = a federation of three main regions (Northern/Western/Eastern) 1.​ Hausa and Fulani 2.​ Yoruba 3.​ Igbo ❖​ Acquiring internal self-government ❖​ 1957 - Alhaji Tafawa Balewa became Nigeria’s first Prime minister. He was from the  Northern region but was educated European style (wanted to work with British rulers). He was neither Hausa nor Fulani. ❖​October 1960 Nigeria became an independent country, sovereign state 1956 Oil was discovered in the country, setting an example for African countries. BUT Competition between different ethnic groups was the main problem “the national problem”. What is Nigeria? No idea of what it was or who they were => “the national question”. Northerners felt like the Southern regions tried to dominate them. Separation between N and S. Nigeria as a young nation: Instability, tensions, and a civil war (1960-1970) State vs Nation. State = an association of people characterized by formal institutions of government, including laws; permanent territorial boundaries. a) permanent population b) a defined territory, c) government d) capacity to enter into relations with other states. Nation = a group of people with a common language, history, culture, and (usually) geographic territory. A construct, built and altered by people to define the identity of a political community in ever-changing circumstances. This construct is a mixture of old and new, of traditional elements and new inventions necessary to build a contextual story of ‘we’ Nigeria was a state but not a Nation. No notion of ‘we’ as Nigerians. Political Instability: 1964 – 1st general elections since independence 1965 – Regional elections in the Western Region → both elections = characterized by corruption, violence, intimidation, obstruction, etc… January 1966 ‘the 5 majors coup’ (young officers in the army) organized a military coup. They killed premiers (high ranking officers) and killed Balewa (he got assassinated). Balewa was replaced by Jonhdon Aguiyi-Ironsi (he was the highest ranking officer). Almost all of the majors were Igbos. A new military government was established. Ironsi decided to get rid of all regions and unify all regions. Counter-coup in July 1966 led by a group of Northerners with Yakubu Gowon to unify Nigeria but contrary to Ironsi, they didn’t want to erase the regions. The ‘July Coup’ killed Ironsi. It was decided to divide Nigeria into 12 States (to create less competition). May-September 1966 · Igbos massacred A series of massacres were committed against Igbo people and other people of southern Nigerian origin living in northern Nigeria starting in May 1966 and reaching a peak after 29 September 1966. These events led to the secession of the eastern Nigerian region May 30, 1967 · Odumegwu Emeka Ojukwu → declared the independence of the eastern region. Independent Republic of Biafra (Southeastern region) The Civil War or Biafran War (1967-1970) Killed between 1 and 3 million people, and nearly destroyed the fragile federal bonds that held together the Nigerian state Two sides of the Civil War Nigeria vs Biafra NIGERIA Republic of BIAFRA Who? Federal Military Government of Military forces of Biafra Nigeria Leader? Yakubu Gowon General Ojukwu Strategies? Isolating + impoverishing Biafra Igbo nationalism Changing currency (making money Using propaganda (accusing Federal in Biafra worthless) government of organizing the genocide of the Igbo people). Photos of Biafra’s children being starved were spread International The UK and US didn’t get officially France & Portugal supplied logistic involvement? involved. support USSR supplied military equipment China supported Biafra Catholic Church & red cross → humanitarian aid Outcome? Officially surrendered in JAN. 1970. Study of the way the civil war was covered in the press Historiography. The belief that white men could write history better than the African themselves left many “dumb” regarding these events. The Benin bronzes Bening was an ancient kingdom, not to be confused with The Republic of Benin. The Benin bronzes were a huge range of items, thousands of objects and art pieces, they adorned palace walls and were used for religious rituals They were important because written history/scripts did not exist, everything was documented through visual archives (objects, oral traditions). « they told their history, how they narrated the histories of kingship, of the kingdom, its political and social life » How were they stolen? The Benin kingdom didn’t comply with the British's trade demands and in 1897 Benin guards killed 7 British missaries (+ guides and servants). It was called “Benin disaster” or “Benin Massacre” → In response (1897): the « Benin Punitive Expedition » was organised (Feb.) = it was a raid on Benin (1200 British troops sent) to conquer the city → It was a revenge but also « an economic enterprise » → They took thousands of artifacts, and documented everything: photographed these artifacts and labeled them « LOOT ». Loot = "private property taken from an enemy in war / stolen goods - typically during a war or a riot." They’re kept in Museums ex. British Museum so many Nigerians don’t get to see them. NOW there’s some work towards getting them back to Nigeria => Repatriation (the act or process of restoring or returning someone or something to the country of origin, allegiance, or citizenship: the act of repatriating or the state of being repatriated). A persistent problem: It’s a legacy of centuries of colonial power that repeats itself again and again with different artifacts, in different museums because the requests aren’t just about items, they are also about cultural and historical identity and who gets to own them. NIGERIA’S DEBATE ABOUT LANGUAGES OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Languages used on national level – in government, administration, education. NATIONAL LANGUAGE: ​ Symbolic significance: a language symbolic of national unity, pride. ​ One which is a source or sign of identity for a nation. LINGUA FRANCA: Any language that is used by speakers of different languages as a common medium of communication; a common language. NIGERIA is a multilingual nation, it has 1)​ The official language = English 2)​ Semi-national languages 3)​ Major languages (recognized at state level) = HAUSA / IGBO / YORUBA 4)​ Many minor languages that are spoken at local scale Desire to change the official language. English pros and cons ▪​ADMINISTRATION + GOVERNMENT ▪​TECHNOLOGICAL AND SCIENTIFIC NEEDS ▪​INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE ▪​ IMPOSED ▪​ INHERITED (exoglossic language) ▪​ TRACE OF COLONIAL PAST EXOGLOSSIC: of, pertaining to, or characterized by the use of a language or variety which is not native to a region, but which nevertheless exercises cultural, political, or economic influence, esp. as an official norm; → opposed to endoglossic Making the official language an indigenous one for being ENDOGLOSSIC, WIDELY SPOKEN, bring NATIONAL & CULTURAL PRIDE, but which one? Suggestion of the pidgin English PIDGIN : a language containing lexical and other features from two or more languages, characteristically with simplified grammar and a smaller vocabulary than the languages from which it is derived, used for communication between people not having a common language; a lingua franca. It is not a mere simplification of English, but a separate and describable language. Its vocabulary is English based but these lexical forms have changed their meaning to fit into the value system and world view of the African people. Ex. Abeg (please), No wahala (no problem)