Chapter 5: Dictionary Making Process PDF

Chapter 5: Process of Dictionary Making. Sample footer text Agenda 1. Planning & Design 2. Collection of Material 3. Production of the Dictionary Production of the Dictionary...

Chapter 5: Process of Dictionary Making. Sample footer text Agenda 1. Planning & Design 2. Collection of Material 3. Production of the Dictionary Production of the Dictionary Word Selection (Exclusion) Editing and Proofreading Publication and Distribution: 4. Updating Dictionaries 5. Challenges in Dictionary Making 20XX 2 Sample footer text Introduction The process of dictionary making typically involves several stages, which may vary depending on the type of dictionary being created and the resources available. Yet, generally speaking; there are three main stages in dictionary making; these are planning and design, collection of material and production of the dictionary. 20XX 3  First stage : Planning & Design At this stage, lexicographers need to establish principles and policies to guide the work and determine the resources needed to complete it. This stage involves identifying the dictionary’s aims and objectives, scope, target audience, size, coverage, format and structure, and the sources of data, and the tools and software to be used. It may also involve budgeting and securing funding for the project.  Second stage : Collection of Material This stage involves collecting the data that will be used to create the dictionary. This may involve gathering texts from different sources, such as books, newspapers, and websites, and/or collecting spoken data through recordings or interviews. Second Stage : Collection of Material Methods Corpus Collection. A corpus is a large collection of texts that are used as a basis for linguistic analysis. Corpus collection involves gathering texts from a variety of sources, such as books, newspapers, websites, and social media. Surveys: A survey can be used to gather data about language use, such as how often certain words or phrases are used in a particular context. Second Stage : Collection of Material Methods Interviews: Interviews can be conducted with experts in a particular field, such as linguists and lexicographers, or with native speakers to gather information about language use and the meanings of words and phrases to identify word senses, choose illustrative quotations, and compile grammatical and usage information to ensure accuracy and completeness of the collected data. Second Stage : Collection of Material : Data Analysis All collected data is typically digitized and stored in a corpus so that it can be searched and analysed using computational tools. This analysis intends to identify the words and meanings that will be included in the dictionary. This usually involves using corpus linguistics tools and techniques, such as concordance, collocation analysis, and frequency analysis, to identify patterns of language use and to determine the meanings and usage of different words. Second Stage : Collection of Material : Data Analysis Word Frequency Analysis: Word frequency analysis involves counting the number of times each word occurs in a corpus or data set. This can provide information about the most common words and their usage patterns. Collocation Analysis: Collocation analysis involves identifying pairs or groups of words that frequently occur together in a particular context. This can provide insights into the meanings and usage of words. Second stage : Collection of Material : Data Analysis Semantic Analysis: Semantic analysis involves examining the meanings of words and how they are used in different contexts. This can involve analysing the relationships between words, such as synonyms, antonyms, and hyponyms. This stage also involves some steps that precede final data selection which involves sampling and filtering collected data. Sampling: Sampling involves selecting a representative subset of data from a larger corpus or data set. This can be done randomly or using specific criteria, such as selecting texts from a particular time or genre. Filtering: Filtering involves removing irrelevant or duplicate data from a corpus or dataset, such as removing non-English texts from a corpus of English-language texts. Third Stage : Production of the Dictionary: This stage involves three major steps:  creating entries  editing and proofreading stage  publication and distribution. Third Stage : Production : Creating Entries The first stage of dictionary production is creating entries which is a complicated multifaced stage that includes: selecting headwords (word selection), arranging and structuring entries, and defining words (discussed earlier in chapter 2) Third Stage : Production : Creating Entries This stage involves decisions related to : Ordering of senses, labelling of parts of speech, labelling of phrasal verbs, treatment of irregular forms and complementation. Including information about pronunciation, etymology, usage notes, and illustrations. Creating cross-references and other features to help users navigate the dictionary such as adding appendices. Third Stage : Production : Creating Entries: selecting and arranging headwords There are different policies for arranging headwords like strict alphabetical ordering, lemmatization (listing inflected forms under base forms) and inclusion of compounds, derivatives, and phrasal verbs. Yet regardless of the selected policy, lexicographers need to make essential decisions about what words to include in a dictionary. Generally, each type of dictionary sets criteria for including or excluding words that is based on the type of dictionary and its intended audience. Creating Entries: Selecting Headwords: Factors/Criteria of Word Selection User Needs The very first criterion dictionary makers apply in selecting words to include in a dictionary is considering the needs of the target audience. For example, a dictionary for learners of the language may include more basic vocabulary and explanations of grammar rules, while a dictionary for specialists in a particular field may include more technical terminology. This can help ensure that the dictionary meets the needs of its users and remains relevant and useful over time. Creating Entries: Selecting Headwords: Factors/Criteria of Word Selection Frequency of Use: One of the most important factors in deciding whether to include a word in a dictionary is how frequently it is used in the language. Words that are commonly used by speakers and writers of the language are more likely to be included in a dictionary. There are many words that fit into this criterion. Below is a list of some of them with a brief definition of each. 1. the - denoting one or more people or things already mentioned or assumed to be common knowledge. 2. and - used to connect words of the same part of speech, clauses, or sentences that are to be taken jointly. 3. he - used to refer to a male person or animal previously mentioned or easily identified. 4. she - used to refer to a female person or animal previously mentioned or easily identified. 5. that - used to identify a specific person or thing observed or heard by the speaker. Creating Entries: Selecting Headwords: Factors/Criteria of Word Selection Range/Extend of usage: Words that are used in a variety of contexts, by a variety of speakers, and across different domains, registers, and dialects are more likely to be included in a dictionary. Words that are limited to a specific region, dialect, or domain may not be included in a general dictionary. Below are some examples. 1. make - cause to exist or happen; create (something); to bring about by operating or doing (something) 2. take - grasp hold of so as to be able to lift or carry. 3. get - come into the possession of something concrete or abstract. 4. go - move along, advance or proceed. 5. see - perceive with the eyes; become aware of via visual perception. Creating Entries: Selecting Headwords: Factors/Criteria of Word Selection Historical Significance: Words with historical significance, such as words that have played an important role in the development of the language or that have cultural or literary significance, may be included in a dictionary even if they are no longer in widespread use in everyday speech. They may still be encountered in literature, poetry, or historical texts, or used by speakers of regional or dialectal varieties of English. As such, they remain an important part of the English language and are still included in dictionaries for reference and study.  Creating Entries: Selecting Headwords: Factors/Criteria of Word Selection Historical Significance: Examples 1. Quixotic: Meaning "exceedingly idealistic; unrealistic and impractical," the word quixotic comes from the character Don Quixote in the novel by Miguel de Cervantes. While the word is still used today, it is not as common as it once was. 2. Hoi polloi: Meaning "the common people; the masses," hoi polloi is a Greek phrase that has been used in English since the early 19th century. While the phrase is still used today, it is not as common as it once was. 3. Cynosure: Meaning "a person or thing that is the centre of attention or admiration," cynosure comes from the Greek word for "dog's tail," which was used to refer to the constellation Ursa Minor. While the word is still used today, it is not as common as it once was. 4. Peradventure: Meaning "perhaps; maybe," peradventure is a Middle English word that was used in the King James Bible and other works of literature from the 16th and 17th centuries. While the word is still in use today, it is not as common as it once was. 5. Garrulous: Meaning "excessively talkative," garrulous is a Latin-derived word that has been used in English since the 17th century. While the word is still used today, it is not as common as it once was. Note that these words are good examples that show how language changes over time, with some words falling out of use while others remain in use but with shifted meanings or connotations. Creating Entries: Selecting Headwords: Factors/Criteria of Word Selection International Importance: Words that are used in multiple languages or have cross-cultural significance may be included in general monolingual, bilingual or multilingual dictionaries. 1. Internet - the global system of interconnected computer networks that use the Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) to link devices worldwide. 2. virus - any of various simple sub microscopic parasites of plants, animals, and bacteria that often cause disease and that consist of a core of RNA or DNA surrounded by a protein coat. 3. government - the system or form by which a community or other political unit is governed. 4. economy - the wealth and resources of a country or region, especially in terms of the production and consumption of goods and services. 5. technology - the application of scientific knowledge for practical purposes, especially in industry. Note that These words describe major developments, concepts and issues that have global impact and relevance. Their inclusion in dictionaries helps provide standardized definitions and information that is useful on an international scale. Creating Entries: Selecting Headwords: Factors/Criteria of Word Selection Semantic Clarity: Words that have clear and distinct meanings and are not easily confused with other words in the language are more likely to be included in a dictionary. 1. Exact - accurate or precise; corresponding closely with reality. 2. Clear - free from obscurity or ambiguity; easily perceptible by the eye or the mind. 3. Distinct - recognizably different in nature from something else of a similar type. 4. Transparent - Easy to perceive or detect; (of a thing) allowing light to pass through so that objects behind can be distinctly seen. The precise, concise definitions for these types of words make them useful additions to dictionaries. The aim is to define the words in a way that removes ambiguity and leaves readers in no doubt about their meaning and application. Creating Entries: Selecting Headwords: Factors/Criteria of Word Selection Semantic Distinctiveness Words that are semantically distinct from other words in the language, or that have multiple meanings that are not easily predictable from their form, may be included in a dictionary to help users understand the nuances of the language. 1.Abhor: To regard with disgust and hatred. 2.Absolve: To declare someone free from blame, guilt or responsibility. 3.Bizarre: Very strange or unusual, especially in appearance or behavior. 4.Catalyst: Something that causes a change or reaction without being changed itself. 5.Euphoria: A feeling or state of intense happiness and excitement. Creating Entries: Selecting Headwords: Factors/Criteria of Word Selection New words, Neologisms & Durability Dictionary makers may also keep track of new words and neologisms that are emerging in the language and include them in the dictionary, especially if they are becoming widely used or have potential to become established in the language. Words that are likely to remain in use over time are more likely to be included in a dictionary than words that are likely to go out of use quickly. Creating Entries: Selecting Headwords: Factors/Criteria of Word Selection Below is a list of examples that are thought to have been added to dictionaries for this reason. 1. Yeet - to throw or propel with force and lack of restraint. Added to Merriam-Webster in 2019. 2. Vaxxed - vaccinated. Added to Merriam-Webster in 2021. 3. Squad - a group of people assembled for a common purpose. Added to Merriam-Webster in 2018. 4. Influencer - a person who has the power to sway others' attitudes or behaviours. Added to Merriam-Webster in 2018. 5. Photobomb - to intrude into and spoil (someone's photographic image), especially by accident. Added to Merriam-Webster in 2016. Note that most of the above examples describe concepts, actions and technologies that have become embedded in modern life and seem likely to remain in use for the foreseeable future. Creating Entries: Selecting Headwords: Factors/Criteria of Word Selection Scholarly Interest/ Specialized Vocabulary Specialized vocabulary that are of interest to scholars and researchers in fields such as linguistics, literature, history, medicine, law, or engineering may be included in specialized dictionaries. Including these words is intended to provide users with the terminology they need to communicate effectively in a specific specialized field. Examples of such words can include the following list. 1. Peruse - read or examine thoroughly and in detail. 2. Pedagogy - the method and practice of teaching, especially as an academic subject. 3. Magnum opus - a great or very important work that is considered the most important one created by an artist or writer. 4. Dissertation - a written thesis, especially one submitted for a doctorate, 5. Ubiquitous - present, appearing, or found everywhere. Creating Entries: Selecting Headwords: Factors/Criteria of Word Selection Productivity Dictionary makers also consider the productivity of a word, which refers to its ability to form new words or to be used in new contexts. Words that are highly productive, such as affixes and compound words, may be included even if they are not frequently used in isolation. 1. -ify: A suffix used to form verbs meaning "to make (something) into (something else)", such as "beautify" or "solidify". 2. -ism: A suffix used to form nouns meaning "a distinct practice, system, or philosophy", such as "capitalism" or "feminism". 3. -ology: A suffix used to form nouns meaning "the study of (something)", such as "biology" or "psychology". 4. -phobia: A suffix used to form nouns meaning "an extreme or irrational fear of (something)", such as "arachnophobia" or "claustrophobia". 5. -scape: A suffix used to form nouns meaning "a view or picture of (something)", such as "landscape". Creating Entries: Selecting Headwords: Factors/Criteria of Word Selection Popular Culture Dictionary makers may include words and phrases that have become popular in the language through popular culture, such as movies, TV shows, and social media. These words may not be widely used across all contexts, but their inclusion can help users understand and engage with popular culture. 1. Avatar: A digital representation of a person in a virtual world, or a character representing a player in a video game. 2. Jedi: A member of an order of heroic, skilled warriors in the Star Wars franchise. 3. Muggle: A person without magical powers in the Harry Potter franchise. 4. Netflix: A streaming service for movies and television shows. 5. Pikachu: A popular character in the Pokémon franchise, known for its yellow colour and electric powers. Creating Entries: Selecting Headwords: Factors/Criteria of Word Selection User-generated Content & Feedback In some cases, dictionary makers may also incorporate user-generated content that are usually based on feedback from users of the dictionary, such as suggestions for new words to include or feedback on existing entries and examples of usage. This can help ensure that the dictionary reflects the current and evolving usage of the language and can also help engage users in the dictionary-making process. Creating Entries: Selecting Headwords: Factors/Criteria of Word Selection Cultural Relevance Dictionary makers may also consider the cultural relevance of a word, especially when compiling a dictionary for a specific culture or community. Words that are associated with specific cultural practices, traditions, or values may be included to provide a more complete picture of the language and culture. Creating Entries: Selecting Headwords: Factors/Criteria of Word Selection Regional Variation Dictionary makers may also consider regional variation in the language and can include words that are specific to certain regions or dialects depending on the type of dictionary and targeted audience. This can help users understand the nuances of the language and communicate effectively with speakers from different regions. These words may be included in specialized dictionaries or regional dictionaries. Below are some examples of words that are used only in specific regions or dialects and may be excluded from a general dictionary: 1. Y'all - A pronoun used to address multiple people. Mostly used in Southern U.S. dialects. 2. Yinz - A variant of "you ones/y'all" used in Western Pennsylvania. 3. Pop - A sweet carbonated beverage. Used regionally in the midwestern U.S. 4. Soda - The same beverage as "pop." Used regionally in the northeastern U.S. 5. Loo - A toilet or bathroom. Used mainly in the U.K, Australia and India. Note that many regional words are normally excluded from general dictionaries because their usage is limited to a specific location. While important for local dialect dictionaries, general dictionaries try to include words that are used across a wide area to represent a standard language. Creating Entries: Selecting Headwords: Factors/Criteria of Word Selection Multilingualism In multilingual settings, dictionary makers may also consider the relationship between the language for which the dictionary is being created and other languages spoken in the same region or by the same community. In some cases, words from other languages may be included to reflect the multilingual nature of the community. Creating Entries: Selecting Headwords: Factors/Criteria of Word Selection Etymology Dictionary makers may also consider the etymology of words, especially when there are multiple words that have similar meanings. Understanding the origins and history of a word can help users understand its meaning and usage in the language. Creating Entries: Selecting Headwords: Factors/Criteria of Word Selection It's important to note that the criteria used by dictionary makers to decide which words to include are complex and multifaceted, use combinations of quantitative and qualitative methods, and may vary depending on the intended purpose and audience of the dictionary. However, together they are used to achieve the ultimate goal of dictionary makers to provide a comprehensive and reliable resource that helps users understand and use the language effectively. Creating Entries: Word Selection (Exclusion) Another significant face of word selection is word exclusion. Dictionary makers also decide which words to exclude. Dictionary editors may exclude a word for a variety of reasons that make the criteria for word exclusions from dictionaries. Creating Entries: Word Selection (Exclusion Criteria) Obsolescence: Words that are no longer in use or have fallen out of use are often excluded from dictionaries. These words may be archaic, obsolete, or their original meanings have narrowed significantly or shifted completely, resulting in disuse of the word in its original form. The words then become outdated and fall out of common dialect. Note that, it may be difficult to identify words that are removed from dictionaries, especially with modern digital dictionaries where the cost of keeping or adding words became very insignificant in comparison to traditional printed versions. Creating Entries: Word Selection (Exclusion Criteria) Obsolescence: Some examples of words that have become obsolete enough to potentially warrant removal can include: 1. Yeoman - Originally meant a common servant or attendant, but now refers more specifically to an attendant of a royal court. The general meaning of any ordinary working person has fallen out of use. 2. Spinster - Originally just meant a woman who spun yarn, but came to refer specifically to an unmarried woman, especially an older woman past the common age of marriage. This connotation has become obsolete. 3. Lass - Originally just meant girl or young woman, but the usage has declined significantly and now seems somewhat archaic or quaint. 4. Courting - The act of seeking romantic attention. The word itself has become outdated, with modern terms like dating being far more common. 5. Gal - Short for girl or young woman. The term has fallen into disuse and can come across as old- fashioned or outdated. 6. Gadget - While the word itself remains in use, its original specific meaning of a mechanical device or contraption has given way to a more general meaning of any mechanical or electronic device. Creating Entries: Word Selection (Exclusion Criteria) Obscenity or Offensiveness: Words that are considered obscene, offensive, or derogatory may be excluded from a dictionary. However, some dictionaries may include such words with appropriate warnings or labels. Proper Nouns: Proper nouns, such as names of people, places, and organizations, are typically excluded from dictionaries, as they are not considered words in the same sense as common nouns. Creating Entries: Word Selection (Exclusion Criteria) Unverifiable or Fictional Terms: Words that are not based on real usage or are fictional may be excluded from a dictionary. For example, words invented by authors or in popular culture may not be included in a general dictionary. Lack of Significance: Words that are not considered significant or important to the language may be excluded from a dictionary. This may include obscure technical terms or jargon that are not widely used or understood. Note that this criterion seems to be the other face of the cultural relevance criterion. Third Stage: Production: Editing and Proofreading Once the entries have been created, the next stage involves editing and proofreading the dictionary to ensure accuracy, consistency, and clarity. This may involve multiple rounds of review by editors and subject matter experts, as well as testing and feedback from potential users. This stage may also involve creating an index and other supportive materials to enhance the usability of the dictionary. Third Stage: Production: Publishing & Marketing The final stage of dictionary production involves publishing and distributing the dictionary. This may involve: Printing physical copies of the dictionary, Making it available online or through software platforms, Promoting it through marketing and outreach efforts. This stage may also involve creating updates and revisions (a further stage of dictionary production) Third Stage : Production : Updating Dictionaries Though technically the process of dictionary making ends by its actual production, dictionary makers start an ongoing stage of updating dictionaries. Dictionary makers need to ensure that their resources are up-to-date and reflect the current usage of the language. Otherwise, the dictionary will be out of date in a short time due to the continuous ongoing process of language development, and hence it will no longer be used. Third Stage: Production: Updating Dictionaries: (Methods) Though technically the process of dictionary making ends by its actual production, dictionary makers start an ongoing stage of updating dictionaries. Dictionary makers need to ensure that their resources are up-to-date and reflect the current usage of the language. Otherwise, the dictionary will be out of date in a short time due to the continuous ongoing process of language development, and hence it will no longer be used. Third Stage: Production: Updating Dictionaries: (Methods) Corpus Linguistics Dictionary makers use corpus linguistics tools and techniques to analyze large collections of language data and identify patterns of language use. By analyzing a corpus of language data, dictionary makers can identify new words, new meanings, and changes in usage over time. Expert Review dictionary makers may consult with subject matter experts, such as linguists, lexicographers, and domain specialists, to ensure the accuracy and completeness of their dictionaries. Experts can provide insights into the nuances of the language and help identify new and emerging vocabulary. User Feedback dictionary makers may also rely on user feedback to identify errors or omissions in their dictionaries. Users can provide feedback through surveys, user testing, and other feedback mechanisms, which can help dictionary makers understand how their dictionaries are being used and identify areas for improvement. Third Stage: Production: Updating Dictionaries: (Methods) Media Monitoring Dictionary makers may monitor media sources, such as newspapers, magazines, and social media, to identify new words and new usages that are emerging in the language. Collaboration Dictionary makers may also collaborate with other organizations, such as publishers, academic institutions, and language associations, to share data and insights and to ensure that their dictionaries are consistent with other resources in the field. Regular Updates Finally, dictionary makers regularly update their dictionaries to reflect changes in the language. This may involve adding new entries, revising existing entries, and removing obsolete entries. Some dictionaries are updated on an annual basis, while others are updated more frequently in response to changes in the language. Third Stage: Production: Updating Dictionaries: (Methods) Machine Learning and Artificial Intelligence Dictionary makers are increasingly turning to machine learning and artificial intelligence (AI) to help identify new words and usages. For example, natural language processing (NLP) algorithms can be used to analyze large amounts of text data and identify patterns of language use. This can help dictionary makers identify new words and usages more quickly and efficiently. Collaborative Editing Some dictionaries use a collaborative editing model, where users can suggest new entries or revisions to existing entries. These suggestions are reviewed by editors and subject matter experts before being incorporated into the dictionary. This model allows the dictionary to be updated more quickly and to reflect a wider range of perspectives. Data-sharing Agreements Dictionary makers may also enter into data-sharing agreements with other organizations to access large collections of language data. For example, a dictionary maker may partner with a search engine company to access search query data, which can provide insights into new words and usages. Third Stage: Production: Updating Dictionaries: (Methods) Social Media Monitoring Dictionary makers may also monitor social media platforms to identify new words and usages that are emerging in the language. Social media platforms can be a rich source of language data, and can provide insights into new words and usages that are popular among younger generations. Language-specific Expertise Dictionary makers may employ language-specific experts, such as native speakers and language teachers, to ensure that their dictionaries reflect the nuances of the language and the needs of the target audience. Global Reach Finally, some dictionary makers aim to have a global reach by creating dictionaries that cover multiple languages or by partnering with other organizations to create multilingual resources. This can help ensure that their dictionaries reflect the diverse needs and perspectives of users around the world. Challenges in Dictionary Making The process of making a dictionary is a complicated multifaced process where lexicographers are faced with many challenges. Below are some of these challenges. A. Data Collection Collecting and compiling data for a dictionary can be a time-consuming and resource- intensive process. It can be challenging to gather a representative sample of language use, especially for specialized domains or dialects. B. Data Analysis Analysing large amounts of data can be challenging, especially when dealing with ambiguous or polysemous words (words with multiple meanings). It can be difficult to determine which meanings to include in the dictionary and how to distinguish between them. Challenges in Dictionary Making C. Defining Words Defining words can be a difficult task, especially when dealing with abstract or complex concepts. It can be challenging to balance accuracy and clarity, and to avoid circular or overly technical definitions. D. Maintaining Consistency Maintaining consistency in format, style, and content across entries can be a challenge, especially when multiple editors or contributors are involved in the project. A consistent dictionary ensures that users can easily find and understand the definitions they are looking for and prevents chances of errors or mistakes. If a dictionary is inconsistent, with multiple definitions for the same word or multiple strategies for defining similar words, it can be confusing and difficult to navigate. Consequently, it will lose its credibility among users. Challenges in Dictionary Making E. Keeping up with Language Change Language is constantly evolving, and new words, meanings, and usages emerge all the time. Dictionary makers need to keep up with these changes and update their dictionaries regularly to remain relevant and accurate. F. Balancing Tradition and Innovation Dictionary making involves balancing the need to preserve established conventions and practices with the need to innovate and respond to changing user needs and expectations. Challenges in Dictionary Making G. Ensuring Accessibility Ensuring that the dictionary is accessible and useful to a wide range of users, including those with different levels of language proficiency and different learning styles, can be a challenge. Designing a user-friendly interface and providing helpful features such as pronunciation guides, usage notes, and examples can help address this challenge. Sample footer text The way to get started is to quit talking and begin doing. Walt Disney 20XX 51 Sample footer text Assignment Exercise at the end of the Chapter. 20XX 52  53 Thank you 20XX Sample footer text