A to Z of Sufism

OTHER A TO Z GUIDES FROM THE SCARECROW PRESS, INC. 1. The A to Z of Buddhism by Charles S. Prebish, 2001. 2. The A to Z of Catholicism by William J. Collinge, 2001. 3. The A to Z of Hinduism by Bruce M. Sullivan, 2001. 4. The A to Z of Islam by Ludwig W. Adamec, 2002. 5. The A to Z of Slavery and Abolition by Martin A. Klein, 2002. 6. Terrorism: Assassins to Zealots by Sean Kendall Anderson and Stephen Sloan, 2003. 7. The A to Z of the Korean War by Paul M. Edwards, 2005. 8. The A to Z of the Cold War by Joseph Smith and Simon Davis, 2005. 9. The A to Z of the Vietnam War by Edwin E. Moise, 2005. 10. The A to Z of Science Fiction Literature by Brian Stableford, 2005. 11. The A to Z of the Holocaust by Jack R. Fischel, 2005. 12. The A to Z of Washington, D.C. by Robert Benedetto, Jane Dono- van, and Kathleen DuVall, 2005. 13. The A to Z of Taoism by Julian F. Pas, 2006. 14. The A to Z of the Renaissance by Charles G. Nauert, 2006. 15. The A to Z of Shinto by Stuart D. B. 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Warrick, 2009. 43. The A to Z of the Seventh-Day Adventists by Gary Land, 2009. 44. The A to Z of Sufism by John Renard, 2009. 45. The A to Z of Sikhism by W. H. McLeod, 2009. 46. The A to Z of Fantasy Literature by Brian Stableford, 2009. 47. The A to Z of the Discovery and Exploration of the Pacific Islands by Max Quanchi and John Robson, 2009. 48. The A to Z of Australian and New Zealand Cinema by Albert Moran and Errol Vieth, 2009. 49. The A to Z of African-American Television by Kathleen Fearn- Banks, 2009. 50. The A to Z of American Radio Soap Operas by Jim Cox, 2009. 51. The A to Z of the Old South by William L. Richter, 2009. 52. The A to Z of the Discovery and Exploration of the Northwest Pas- sage by Alan Day, 2009. 53. The A to Z of the Druzes by Samy S. Swayd, 2009. 54. The A to Z of the Welfare State by Bent Greve, 2009. 55. The A to Z of the War of 1812 by Robert Malcomson, 2009. 56. The A to Z of Feminist Philosophy by Catherine Villanueva Gard- ner, 2009. 57. 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The A to Z of Postmodernist Literature and Theater by Fran Mason, 2009. 72. The A to Z of Australian Radio and Television by Albert Moran and Chris Keating, 2009. 73. The A to Z of the Lesbian Liberation Movement: Still the Rage by JoAnne Myers, 2009. The A to Z of Sufism John Renard The A to Z Guide Series, No. 44 The Scarecrow Press, Inc. Lanham Toronto Plymouth, UK 2009 Published by Scarecrow Press, Inc. A wholly owned subsidiary of The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc. 4501 Forbes Boulevard, Suite 200, Lanham, Maryland 20706 http://www.scarecrowpress.com Estover Road, Plymouth PL6 7PY, United Kingdom Copyright © 2005 by John Renard All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Information Available Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data The hardback version of this book was cataloged by the Library of Congress as follows: Renard, John, 1944– Historical dictionary of Sufism / John Renard. p. cm. — (Historical dictionaries of religions, philosophies, and movements ; no. 58) Includes bibliographical references. 1. Sufism—Dictionaries. I. Title. II. Series. BP188.48.R46 2005 297'.09—dc22 2004026282 ISBN 978-0-8108-6827-4 (pbk. : alk. paper) ISBN 978-0-8108-6343-9 (ebook) ! ™ The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992. Printed in the United States of America Contents Editor’s Foreword Jon Woronoff ix Acknowledgments and Credits xi Reader’s Note xv Maps xviii Chronology xxi Introduction 1 THE DICTIONARY 17 Glossary 261 Bibliography 279 About the Author 351 vii Editor’s Foreword Sufism, a term derived from the woolen garments of early ascetics, may not be the most exact expression to cover the mystical movements within Islam, but it is the best we have. And it would be hard to come up with another that is more precise, because the phenomenon itself has taken on such a variety of forms during the 1,200 or so years it has already ex- isted. Under this heading come many different orders, established at many different times and in many different places, by many different spiritual directors. They did not always agree on all points—indeed, they occasionally quarreled and certainly rivaled one another—and this is still valid today. But their ultimate goals were the same, and they drew in- spiration from the same holy Qur’ān and the awesome figure of the Prophet Muh.ammad. It is this diversity that often confuses outsiders, and it is this diversity that makes a work of this sort so useful, since rather than trying to impose uniformity and order where none exist it can show the impressive variety of origins, structures and organizations, rules and creeds, and practices and concepts. It can also delve into the cultural wealth of art, music, dance, and literature. This is facilitated by the format of a historical dictionary. First, the chronology traces the long and venerable list of spiritual directors, po- ets and philosophers, and also political leaders who created and en- riched the movement. Then, the introduction, vital given the diversity, can bring the salient aspects together in a broad and ordered whole. But it is the dictionary that again allows a multitude of aspects, persons, places, events, institutions, and concepts to be considered individually. Since terminology is so important, and virtually all of it is in Arabic, Persian, and other languages unfamiliar to most English speakers, the glossary is particularly precious. For those who want to take the study of Sufism further, and there will be more and more with time, the bib- liography points to other sources of information. ix x EDITOR’S FOREWORD The A to Z of Sufism was written by John Renard, an eminent student and teacher of the subject. His doctoral dissertation dealt with the renowned Sufi Rūmı̄, and since then he has written a dozen books, mostly on Islam and Sufism. Since 1978, he has been teaching at the De- partment of Theological Studies at Saint Louis University. He is well aware of the diversity and variety, and, if anything, appreciates it, and over the past quarter century of writing and teaching he has become ac- customed to explaining the many twists and turns, the highways and also the byways, the theological and legal aspects, and the rich culture that has grown up around it. Since Dr. Renard deals not only with scholars and initiates but also students and outsiders, he knows how to present Sufism to a more general public as well. So let us take advantage. Jon Woronoff Series Editor Acknowledgments and Credits I gratefully acknowledge the kind assistance of the following col- leagues in Islamic studies for their helpful comments on various drafts of several elements of this volume: Bruce Lawrence of Duke University; Ahmet Karamustafa of Washington University; Laury Silvers of Skidmore College; Hayrettin Yu·cesoy of Saint Louis Uni- versity; and Qamar-ul Huda of Boston College. I wish to thank also series editor Jon Woronoff for his invitation to do this volume, his flexibility in the timing of its delivery, and for his ongoing comments as I hammered out the various pieces of the book. Special thanks to Matt Gilbertson and Inta Ivanovska of Saint Louis University for their able editorial assistance on various aspects of the project and in compiling the bibliography and chronology. My thanks go also to Saint Louis University for support in the form of a Mellon Summer Stipend and a Graduate School Summer Research Award. I am grateful to the following institutions for permission to use their holdings as credited individually in the illustration section: The Saint Louis Art Museum, with special thanks to Pat Woods of Photo- graphic Services and Permissions for help in securing the cover photo; the Los Angeles County Museum of Art; the Freer and Sack- ler Galleries of the Smithsonian Institution; the Fogg and Sackler col- lections of the Harvard University Art Museums; the Walters Mu- seum in Baltimore; the Bawa Muhaiyaddeen Fellowship. I thank the University of California Press for permission to use the flyleaf map that appeared in my Windows on the House of Islam (1998). Lastly, I thank my wife, Mary Pat, for her loving support and unfailing good humor over the long haul. xi xii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS AND CREDITS PHOTO CREDITS Cover Photo: Courtesy St. Louis Art Museum, 83.42 Map: Reprinted from John Renard, Windows on the House of Islam, copyright © 1998 by the Regents of the University of California, 1998, with permission of the University of California Press. Fig. 1. Photo © John Renard. Fig. 2. Photo © John Renard. Fig. 3. Photo © John Renard. Fig. 4. Photo © John Renard. Fig. 5. Photo © John Renard. Fig. 6. Photo © John Renard. Fig. 7. Photo © John Renard. Fig. 8. Material printed with the permission of the Bawa Muhaiyad- deen Fellowship, 5820 Overbrook Drive, Philadelphia, PA 19131. Fig. 9. Thanks to Carl W. Ernst for supplying the calendar art. Fig. 10. Courtesy of the Arthur M. Sackler Museum, Harvard Univer- sity Art Museums, Sarah C. Sears Collection. 1936.28 Artist Unknown. Fig. 11. Courtesy of the Walters Art Museum, Baltimore. Fig. 12. Courtesy of the Arthur M. Sackler Museum, Harvard Univer- sity Art Museums, Grace Nichols Strong, Francis H. Burr and Friends of the Fogg Art Museum Funds. 1950.135. Fig. 13. Courtesy of the Arthur M. Sackler Museum, Harvard Univer- sity Art Museums, Promised Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Stuart Cary Welch, Jr. Partially owned by the Metropolitan Museum and the Arthur M. Sackler Museum, HUAM 1988.460.3. Painted by Sultan Muhammad. Fig. 14. Freer Gallery of Art, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.: Purchase, F 1946.12. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS AND CREDITS xiii Fig. 15. Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution, Washing- ton, D.C.: Smithsonian Unrestricted Trust Funds, Smithson- ian Collections Acquisition Program and Dr. Arthur M. Sack- ler, S1986.432. Fig. 16. Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution, Washing- ton, D.C.: Smithsonian Unrestricted Trust Funds, Smithsonian Collections Acquisition Program and Dr. Arthur M. Sackler, S1986.35. Fig. 17. Courtesy of the St. Louis Art Museum. Purchase 86:23. Fig. 18. Courtesy of the St. Louis Art Museum. Purchase 386:1952. Fig. 19. Courtesy Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Nasli M. Neera- maneech Collection, Gift of Joan Pavlevsky M.73.5.582. Fig. 20. Photo © John Renard. Reader’s Note The individual elements of this volume include a map showing major cities and regions from Spain to Indonesia; a chronology spanning some 14 centuries of Islamic history; a historical introduction that provides a quick overview of approaches to the history of Sufism; the A to Z entries of the dictionary proper; a glossary of technical terms; an ex- tensive bibliography organized thematically; and a collection of illus- trations, including photos of pertinent works of art and architecture as well as a few scenes of Sufi activities. The Chronology An extensive chronological table offers a running list of major events and persons in the history of Sufism as well as some other key events in Islamic history and beyond for purposes of broader contextualization. It provides a device that can suggest diachronic relationships among figures geographically distant, a relationship not otherwise easily shown. Here I have biased the dating toward the non-Islamic solar years (since most readers will look first for those dates) but have kept the Islamic lunar Hijrı̄ dates as well; for example, 622/1. The Illustrations Photographs included here offer a blend of more contemporary “action” documentation, shots of relevant surviving medieval Sufi architecture, and representative works of art on Sufi themes in various media from the holdings of several American museums. The Dictionary A word about the structure and organization of the dictionary entries: My overall concern has been to balance the interests and needs of two general xv xvi READER’S NOTE groups of potential readers. On the one hand, the entries in the dictionary are biased toward English, the better to serve readers not necessarily fa- miliar with technical terminology of Islamic studies and the history of Sufism. On the other, I have included in the dictionary most of the for- eign terms listed in the glossary, cross-referencing them to relevant en- tries linked to equivalent English terms and general concepts. In general, I have maintained a bias toward Arabic terminology, since the vast majority of Sufi terms originated in Arabic. This overall bias has led to one unintended consequence resulting, in most cases, from morphological peculiarities of Arabic: I ask the reader’s indulgence with the occasional blocks of cross-referenced technical Arabic and other non-English terms. Readers familiar with other volumes in this se- ries will have encountered a similar organizational issue in Ahmad Moussalli’s Historical Dictionary of Islamic Fundamentalist Move- ments in the Arab World, Iran, and Turkey (1999). Arabic and other technical terms that appear in various entries but do not have their own entries are not cross-referenced by bolding; for such terms, readers will find a quick reference in the glossary. The present dictionary seeks to provide basic information on the con- siderable geographical breadth of Sufism’s spread, with entries on most of the written and nontextual sources mentioned here, as well as the ma- jor regions and cities of importance in the history of Sufism. Individual historical surveys of Sufism to date have in general not striven for the broadest possible geographical inclusiveness, typically scrimping on one or more regions, including China, Southeast Asia, Eastern Europe, and sub-Saharan Africa. Though the entries are in general not detailed enough to supply information for serious synchronic study, they will nevertheless give readers an idea of the vast possibilities awaiting fur- ther study along these lines. The Glossary Mostly in Arabic and Persian but including some Chinese and Turkish words, the glossary lists several hundred technical terms with very brief definitions for quick reference. These terms also appear in different contexts in the dictionary, typically cross-referenced from the original- language term to an article on a related topic. READER’S NOTE xvii The Bibliography A reader’s note that provides an introductory overview, highlighting key aspects of the literature, precedes the bibliography itself. Transliteration Authors of broad-ranging books in Islamic studies invariably confront the perplexing challenge of establishing a consistent protocol for transliterat- ing non-English terminology. In the interest of technical precision (for the benefit of specialists), I have chosen a fairly comprehensive standard ap- proach to transliterating names and technical terms. This includes indica- tion of long vowels (ā, ı̄, ū) and consonants that require overstrike dots be- neath them (h., s., t., d., z.). Again the bias is toward the largely Arabic origins of these terms, and I have opted for transliteration that reflects an Arabic pronunciation of many terms that have long been standard vocabulary in languages such as Persian, Turkish, and Malay. Attempting to acknowl- edge peculiarities of pronunciation in those and other languages would have resulted in a very confusing babble of conventions. I have sought to maintain consistent transliteration of non-European vocabulary throughout the book, with the notable exception of the bib- liography, because of the profusion of sources from which I drew the material (including lists that already showed titles and names modified from formats printed on the original works—works not readily avail- able to me) and the bewildering variety of transliteration systems (or lack thereof) chosen by the original authors and publishers. The excep- tion here is that I have attempted to give full transliteration of the names of the (generally Muslim) authors of works in the sections on primary- source editions and translations. Within the dictionary entries I have opted for one minor, but consis- tent, variation: I have not incorporated diacriticals in the names of cities (such as Baghdad), regions (such as Khurasan), and nation-states (such as Iraq), except when those geographical designators are used adjecti- vally (e.g. Baghdādı̄, Khurāsānı̄, ‘Irāqı̄), or when the place name merits its own entry, in which case the headword receives full transliteration (e.g., Ajmı̄r, Bas.ra). Given the complexity of the whole business of transliteration, I ask the reader’s indulgence with the numerous judg- ment calls the options demanded. Chronology Unless otherwise noted, a single date indicates an individual’s year of death. 525 Dhū Nuwās, South Arabian Jewish king; south Arabia becomes an Abyssinian satrapy. 570 Ma‘rib dam breaks for the third time (in Yemen); final disinte- gration of ancient south Arabian civilization. 570 Birth of the Prophet Muh.ammad. c. 595 Muh.ammad marries Khadı̄ja, first and only wife while she lived. c. 595 End of the Lakhmid dynasty, which had served the Persians as a frontier guard in the city of H.irā and client state against the Byzantine Empire’s Arab proxies, the Ghassānids. 610 Muh.ammad’s call and first experience of the Qur’ān. 615 “Little Hijra”—Muh.ammad sends Muslims to seek refuge in Abyssinia. 619 Khadı̄ja; and Muh.ammad’s protector and uncle Abū T.ālib. c. 621 Muh.ammad’s Night Journey (to Jerusalem) and Ascension the various levels of heaven and hell. 622/1 The Hijra: Muh.ammad and followers travel from Mecca to Medina, and Muslim era begins. 624/2 Muslim victory over Meccans at Badr (March 13/17th Ra- mad.ān) 625/3 Muslim defeat at Uh.ud (March, 15th Shawwāl) xxi xxii CHRONOLOGY 630/9 Conquest of Mecca and integration of Ka‘ba into Islamic practice. 630–631/9–10 Ja‘far at.-T.ayyār, Muh.ammad’s cousin, slain in early battle, called the “flyer” because he flew in spite of massive wounds; early paradigm of religious hero. 632/11 Prophet Muh.ammad, succeeded by father-in-law, Abū Bakr. 632-634/11–13 Abū Bakr quells uprisings in Arabia (Wars of Apos- tasy, ridda) invades Mesopotamia and Palestine. 633/11 Fāt.ima, daughter of Muh.ammad and Khadı̄ja, model for fe- male spirituality. 634-644/13–24 Greatest conquests by early Muslim Arabs under Caliph ‘Umar. 636-38/15-17 Capture of Damascus (December 636) and Jerusalem (Early 638). 639-640/18–19 Conquest of Egypt and Persia, end of Sasanian Zoroastrian empire. 641/20 or 21 Bilāl ibn Rabāh., black Abyssinian, first muezzin. 644/24 Second Caliph ‘Umar ibn al-Khat.t.āb, model of devout life. c. 652/32 Abū ’d-Dardā’, Companion of the Prophet in Medina and h.adı̄th transmitter, considered by Sufis to be among the early Muslim ascetics dubbed the “People of the Bench.” 653/32 Abū Dharr al-Ghifārı̄, a Companion of the Prophet, transmit- ter of h.adı̄th, and ascetic model of devotion. c. 653/33 Traditional date at which “canon” of the Qur’ān was estab- lished by ‘Uthmān. 656/36 Salmān al-Fārisı̄ (the barber), early Christian convert to Islam, model for later Sufis. Murder of ‘Uthmān, the third caliph; ‘Alı̄ suc- ceeds as caliph. 656/36–661/41 First fitna, internal struggles for Muslim leadership. 657/36 Uways al-Qaranı̄ martyred in the Battle of S.iffı̄n on the side of ‘Alı̄, the caliph. Kharijites “secede” from ‘Alı̄, raising questions CHRONOLOGY xxiii about who is “true Muslim” and the relationship of observable sin to membership in the community. 661/41 ‘Alı̄ ibn Abı̄ T.ālib, first Shı̄‘ı̄ Imām and important figure in many Sufi lineages. 661/41–750/133 Umayyad dynasty founded, with capital at Damas- cus, important city in history of Sufism. 661/41–680/62 Mu‘āwiya caliph; beginning of second great period of expansion. 662/42 Maximus the Confessor, first Christian mystic to articulate purgative, illuminative, and unitive phases of mystical path. 678/59 ‘Ā’isha, Muh.ammad’s youngest wife, daughter of Abū Bakr, responsible for transmitting important traditions. 680/61 H.usayn ibn ‘Alı̄, grandson of Prophet, martyred at Karbalā’ in southern Iraq; death commemorated on 10th of Muh.arram. 692/73 Completion of the Dome of the Rock, Jerusalem; traditional site of Prophet’s Ascension. 8th century/1st–2nd century Jamı̄l, poet from tribe of ‘Udhra, chaste love for Buthayna model for Sufi poets. 715/96–97 Completion of Al-Aqs.ā Mosque, Jerusalem, traditionally identified as goal of Prophet’s mystical Night Journey. 728/110 H.asan al-Bas.rı̄, community leader of Basra pietists, proto- typical Sufi ascetic. c. 748/131 Mālik ibn Dı̄nār, ascetic of Basra. 749/132 Farqad as-Sabakhı̄, ascetic of Basra. 750-1258/133–656 ‘Abbāsid dynasty, capital at newly founded city of Baghdad, early center of major ascetics and Sufi groups. 765/148 Ja‘far as.-S.ādiq, Shı̄‘ı̄ leader, sixth Imām (for most Shı̄‘ı̄ Muslims), major figure in history of mystical exegesis. 767/150 Abū H.anafa, jurist of Kufa, H.anafi School named for him. Muqātil ibn Sulaymān, major exegete of Iraq. xxiv CHRONOLOGY 770/153 ‘Umar ibn ‘Abd al-‘Azı̄z (‘Umar II), Umayyad caliph, con- sidered by Sufis and others as model of piety as ruler, less worldly than other Umayyads. 772/156 H.abı̄b al-‘Ajamı̄, important ascetic. 777/161 Ibrāhı̄m ibn Adham, Khurāsānı̄ ascetic. 795/179 Mālik ibn Anas, Meccan founder of Sunnı̄ law school that became dominant in Spain and North Africa. 750-850/133–236 Legal implications of the Qur’ān put into more sys- tematic form by the scholars considered the founders of the four Sunnı̄ law schools: Abū H.anı̄fa (d. 767), Mālik ibn Anas (d. 795), Ash-Shāfi‘ı̄ (d. 820), and Ah.mad ibn H.anbal (d. 855). c. 800/184 Buhlul ibn ‘Amr, “wise fool” famed for his blunt social critique. 9th/2nd–3rd century Abū ‘Ali as-Sindı̄, perhaps Bāyazı̄d al-Bist.āmı̄’s mystical master. Rih.āna al-Wālih.a, saintly woman mystic. Rābi‘a ash- Shāmı̄ya, Syrian wife of Ahmad ibn Abi’l-H.awārı̄, noted for her con- stantly changing mystical states. c. 801/185 Rābi‘a al-‘Adawı̄ya, female poet, ascetic, mystic of Basra whom some consider the first true Muslim mystic in her desire to move beyond mere asceticism. 809/193 Hārūn ar-Rashı̄d, ‘Abbāsid caliph, “hero” of 1001 Nights. 810/194 Shaqı̄q al-Balkhı̄, originated discussion of mystical “states.” 815/200 Ma‘rūf al-Karkhı̄, leading Sufi in Baghdad. 820/205 H.adı̄th scholar and jurist Muh.ammad ibn Idrı̄s ash-Shāfi‘ı̄, founder of Sunnı̄ law school prominent in central Middle East, Indone- sia. Shankara, Shaivite Hindu theologian and mystic. 824/208 Sayyida Naf ı̄sa, female descendant of the Prophet, known for virtue and piety; tomb in Cairo still visited by devotees. 833/218 Ma’mūn, ‘Abbāsid caliph from 813–833, major sponsor of Arabic translations of Greek scientific and philosophical texts, preserv- ing scholarship that influenced Western thought and science in the later CHRONOLOGY xxv Middle Ages. Favored Mu‘tazilite rationalist thought and recognized it as his ‘state’ creed. 841/227 Bishr ibn al-H.ārith “Al-H.āfı̄,” “The Barefoot,” famous ascetic. 849/235 Fāt.ima of Nishapur, Khurāsānı̄ mystic, wife of Ah.mad Khid.rūya, acquaintance of Bāyazı̄d and Dhū ’n-Nūn. 855/241 Ah.mad ibn H.anbal, founder of the fourth Sunnı̄ school of law, currently dominant in the Arabian Peninsula. 857/243 Al-H.ārith ibn Asad al-Muh.āsibı̄, ‘Irāqı̄ mystical teacher and theorist, author of Observance of the Rights of God. 860/245 Thawbān ibn Ibrāhı̄m Dhū ’n-Nūn, Egyptian Sufi considered to be creator of unique interpretation of experiential knowledge. Abū Turāb an-Nakhshabı̄, Central Asian ascetic and follower of H. ātim al- As.amm. 861/246 Al-Mutawakkil, ‘Abbāsid caliph who opposed Mu‘tazilite theology and restored Ibn H.anbal’s traditionalism to centrality. c. 867/253 Sarı̄ “as-Saqat.ı̄,” Baghdad ascetic, controversial teaching on love. 870/256 Al-Buhkārı̄, Central Asian scholar whose collection of H.adı̄th became one of the two most important of the “Six” authoritative collections. 872/258 Yah.yā ibn Mu‘ādh ar-Rāzı̄, Sufi preacher of Nishapur. 873/259 H.unayn ibn Ish.āq, Scholar under whom Greek translation reached its height. Al-Kindı̄, first great Arab philosopher. 873/260 Twelfth Imām of the “Twelver Shı̄‘a” goes into “Lesser Con- cealment.” According to the Shı̄‘ı̄ belief, he works as Lord of Time from his concealment until his return. 875/261 T.ayfūr ibn ‘Īsā Abū Yazı̄d (Bāyazı̄d) al-Bist.amı̄, Persian mys- tic known for his ecstatic utterances. c. 878/265 Abū H.afs. al-H.addād, mystic/ascetic of Nishapur. 884/270–1 H.amdūn al-Qas.s.ār, Khurāsānı̄ ascetic and leader of Malā- matı̄ya. xxvi CHRONOLOGY 888/275 Ah.mad Ghulām Khalı̄l, brought charges against Sufis of Baghdad and Nūrı̄ in 885/272. 896/283 ‘Alı̄ ibn ar-Rūmı̄, ‘Irāqı̄ poet who described Sufi ascetical practices at Basra. Sahl at-Tustarı̄, early Sufi exegete and theorist, fre- quently cited by manualists, influenced the Sālimı̄ya school of thought. c. 898/285 Muh.ammad ibn ‘Alı̄ al-H.akı̄m at-Tirmidhı̄, Central Asian theorist. 899/286 Abū Sa‘ı̄d al-Kharrāz, ‘Irāqı̄-born author of Book of Authen- ticity. 10th/3rd–4th century Period of major developments in Sufi litera- ture: the first great manuals of spirituality by Makkı̄, Kālābādhı̄, and Sarrāj. c. 904/291 Ibrāhı̄m al-Khawwās., itinerant ascetic from Iraq. 907/295 Abū ’l-H.usayn an-Nūrı̄, Sufi in Baghdad, disciple of Sarı̄ “as- Saqat.ı̄” and author of The Stations of Hearts. 909/296 Muh.ammad ibn Dā’ūd, son of the founder of the Z.āhirı̄ school of law, denounced H.allāj and incited other scholars against him. Composed a book on the ideal of chaste love and stressed the martyr- dom of chastity; denied the possibility of divine-human mutual love, excluding all human elements from mystical love. ‘Amr ibn ‘Uthmān al-Makkı̄. 910/298 Junayd, author, legal scholar, mystic in Baghdad, greatest of the “sober” mystics. Sumnūn ibn H.amza “Al-Muh.ibb,” early Baghdad Sufi, follower of Sarı̄ “as-Saqat. ı̄.” Abū ‘Uthmān al-H. ı̄rı̄, Central Asian ascetic. 915/302–3 Ruwaym ibn Ah.mad, early Baghdad mystic, associate of Junayd. c. 922/310 Abū ’l-‘Abbās ibn ‘At. ā’ killed, supporter of H. allāj. 923/311 Abū Ja‘far at.-T.abarı̄, great historiographer and Qur’ān com- mentator. 931/319 Ibn Masarra, Iberian mystical author, philosopher, ascetic and leader of early Sufi school of Cordoba. CHRONOLOGY xxvii 932/320 Muh.ammad ibn ‘Alı̄ al-H.akı̄m at-Tirmidhı̄, Central Asian theorist. c. 932/320 Abū Bakr Muh.ammad al-Wāsit.ı̄, Baghdad contemporary of H.allāj. 934/322 Abū Bakr al-Kattānı̄, early member of Baghdad school. Abū ‘Alı̄ Ah.mad ar-Rūdhbārı̄, mystic of Shāfi‘ı̄ School of Law. 935/323 Al-Ash‘arı̄, leading theologian who introduced elements of Mu’tazilite methodology into mainstream theology. 945/333–4 Shiblı̄, ‘Irāqı̄ Sufi and disciple of Junayd. 949-1022 Simeon the New Theologian, major Byzantine author on deification and mystical experience. 950/338–9 Al-Fārābı̄, major Islamic philosopher of Turkic descent. 959/348 Ja‘far al-Khuldı̄, associate of Junayd in Baghdad. 965/354 or 976/366 ‘Abd al-Jabbār an-Niffarı̄, enigmatic ‘Irāqı̄ au- thor of Book of Mystical Sayings and Mystical Adresses. 965/354 Mutanabbı̄, great Arab H.amdānid court panegyrist. 969/358–1171/566 Fāt.imid dynasty rules central Middle East from newly founded capital of Cairo. 973/362 Azhar mosque founded in Cairo, becomes the center of Shı̄‘ı̄ intellectual life under Fāt.imid rule. 977/367 Abū ’l-Qāsim Ibrāhı̄m an-Nas.rābādhı̄, disciple of Shiblı̄. 982/371 Ibn Khafı̄f, major mystic of Shiraz, age of c. 100. Abū ’l-H.usayn al-H.us.rı̄, ascetic of Basra. 988/378 Abū Nas.r as-Sarrāj, theorist of Khurasan and author of the in- fluential manual, Book of Light Flashes. 990/380 Bishr Yā-Sı̄n, shaykh of Abū Sa‘ı̄d ibn Abı̄ ’l-Khayr. 990/380 or 994/384 Abū Bakr Muh.ammad al-Kalābādhı̄, historian and theorist of Sufism from Central Asia, wrote Exploration of Sufi Teachings. xxviii CHRONOLOGY 995/385 Ibn an-Nadı̄m, wrote the Fihrist (major biographical diction- ary) in which he mentions two of Dhū ’n-Nūn’s works as alchemical writings; negative on H.allāj but comprehensive listing of works. 996/386 Abū T.ālib al-Makkı̄, author of manual, Sustenance of Hearts. 997/387 or 1023/414 Abū ’l-Fad.l Muh.ammad ibn H.asan Sarakhsı̄, Cen- tral Asian Khurāsānı̄ shaykh and teacher of Abū Sa‘ı̄d ibn Abı̄ ’l-Khayr. c. 1000/391 Bābā T.āhir ‘Uryān, author of early Persian Sufi quatrains. c. 1010/400–401 Firdawsı̄ finishes the Persian national epic The Book of Kings, first major landmark of “Islamicate” Persian literature. 1013/404 Al-Bāqillānı̄, jurist and major systematizer of Ash‘arite theology. c. 1021/412 Abū ‘Ali ad-Daqqāq, mentor of Qushayrı̄. 1021/412 ‘Abd ar-Rah.mān as-Sulamı̄, exegete and hagiographer from Nı̄shı̄pūr, disciple of Nas.rābādhı̄. 1030/421 Mah.mūd of Ghazni, ruler of Afghanistan, conqueror of northwestern India. 1033/425 Abū ’l-H.asan ‘Alı̄ al-Kharaqānı̄, Persian mystic and shaykh of Ans.ārı̄. Abū Ish.āq Ibrāhı̄m al-Kāzarūnı̄, Persian mystic and epony- mous founder of Kāzarūnı̄ya. 1037/428 Abū ‘Alı̄ ibn Sı̄nā (Avicenna), major Muslim philosopher from Central Asia, author of three “visionary recitals” and Book of the Ascension. 1038/430 Abū Nu‘aym Al-Is.fahānı̄, known for his famous hagio- graphic work Ornament of the Friends of God, completed 1031/422. 1048/439–40 Abū Rayh.ān al-Birūnı̄, scholar of Indian philosophy and life. 1049/440–1 Abū Sa‘ı̄d ibn Abı̄ ’l-Khayr, saintly poet of Khurasan. 1057/451 Abū ’l-‘Alā’ al-Ma‘arrı̄, famed Syrian Arabic philosopher/ poet. 1064/456 Ibn H.azm, Iberian politician, lawyer, religious polemicist. CHRONOLOGY xxix c. 1072/465 ‘Alı̄ ibn ‘Uthmān Dātā Ganj Bakhsh Hujwı̄rı̄, H.anafı̄ scholar and author of the manual Revelation of Realities Veiled. 1074/466–7 Abū ’l-Qāsim ‘Abd al-Karı̄m al-Qushayrı̄, Central Asian manualist and hagiographer who wrote Treatise (on Sufism), a.k.a. The Letter to the Sufis, reconciles Sufism with Sunnı̄ authorities. 1083/476 ‘Abd al-Mālik al-Juwaynı̄, central Asian theologian, teacher of Abū H.āmid al-Ghazālı̄. 1089/481 Khwāja ‘Abd Allāh Ans.ārı̄, Khurāsānı̄ scholar, author of Hundred Fields and Dwelling Places of the Wayfarers. 1092/485 Niz.ām al-mulk, Saljūqid grand vizier who exiled Ans.ārı̄ from Herat in 1066, appointed Ghazālı̄ professor at Niz.āmı̄ya madrasa in Baghdad. 1096/490 First Crusade leads to Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem (1099–1189). 12th/6th century Al-Mukharrimı̄, built first Hanbalite madrasa. 1111/505 Abū H.āmid al-Ghazālı̄, professor in Baghdad and author of The Revitalization of Religious Disciplines. 1119/512–3 Ibn ‘Aqı̄l, Hanbalite legal scholar. 1124/518 H.asan-i S.abāh., Persian Ismā‘ı̄lı̄ leader, militant branch of Shı̄‘a which gained a firm footing in parts of the Middle East. 1126/520 Ah.mad al-Ghazālı̄, younger brother of Abū H.āmid al- Ghazālı̄ and author of Sparks (Sawānih.). Rashı̄d ad-Dı̄n Maybudı̄, Per- sian scholar, exegete, and mystic, student of Ans.ārı̄. 1131/525 Abū ’l-Majd Majdūd Sanā’ı̄, Persian Sufi poet, wrote clas- sic didactic work entitled The Hidden Garden of Ultimate Reality. 1131/526 ‘Ayn al-Qud.āt al-Hamadhānı̄, disciple of Ah.mad al- Ghazālı̄, persecuted in Baghdad and executed on the charge of aberrant views of sainthood and eschatology. 1132/526 “Umar Khayyām, Persian poet, used the image of the potter making beautiful things and then destroying them, implying God’s role with the mystic, destroying the outward forms. xxx CHRONOLOGY 1140/534 Abū Qāsim Ah.mad as-Sam‘ānı̄, Persian mystical poet who wrote Refreshment of Spirits, innovative for its blend of prose and po- etry. Yūsuf Hamadhānı̄, Persian shaykh influential in Central Asia. 1141/536 Ah.mad of Jām, who authored several Persian works on spir- ituality. Ibn al-‘Arı̄f, Iberian author of The Beauties of Mystical Sessions. 1153/548 Bernard of Clairvaux, reformer of Christian monasticism. 1157/556 Bahrāmshāh ibn Mas‘ūd of Ghazni, sultan to whom Sanā’ı̄ dedicated the 10th chapter of his Hidden Garden of Ultimate Reality. 1166/561 ‘Abd al-Qādir al-Jı̄lānı̄, famous Sufi preacher and eponym of the Qādirı̄ order, considered the first formal Sufi order. 1168/563–4 Abū ’n-Najı̄b ‘Abd al-Qāhir as-Suhrawardı̄, Persian shaykh, author, and scholar who taught Ah.mad al-Ghazālı̄, Najm ad- Dı̄n Kubrā and Abū H.afs. ‘Umar as-Suhrawardı̄. Wrote Rules of Behav- ior for Sufi Seekers. 1182/578 Ah.mad ar-Rifā‘ı̄, ‘Irāqı̄ Shāfi‘ı̄ scholar and founder of the Rifā‘ı̄ya. 1191/587 Shihāb ad-Dı̄n Yah.yā as-Suhrawardı̄ “Maqtūl,” father of Il- luminationist” school, influential in fields of theosophical and specula- tive Sufism. 1189/585–1192/588 Third Crusade, battle at Acre leads to truce, giv- ing Christians access to Jerusalem. 1193/589 S.alāh. ad-Dı̄n (Saladin), Kurdish sultan/founder of the Ayyūbid dynasty patron of Sufis, dervishes, hero of anti-Crusade against Richard the Lion-Hearted. 1197/594 Abū Madyan of Tlemcen, Sufi saint who gathered a follow- ing and was thought to be a disciple of ‘Abd al-Qādir al-Jı̄lānı̄. 1198/594 Ibn Rushd (Averroes) of Cordoba, greatest Arabic commen- tator on Aristotle; refuted works of Ghazālı̄’s polemics against philoso- phy; also court physician of the Moroccan Berber Almohad dynasty of Marrakesh. Late 12th/6th century Fāt.ima of Cordoba, female spiritual director of Ibn al-‘Arabı̄. Ibn-i Munawwar, Persian hagiographer. CHRONOLOGY xxxi 13th century/7th century A time of tremendous political changes, when Mongols swept across Asia and made deep inroads into Europe. Amid this destruction, the period produced a strong upsurge of mysti- cal activity. The greatest mystical writers of the Islamic world came from this period. Orders established firmly in India and several origi- nated in Egypt. Sari S.alt.ūk., Turkish warrior dervish who fought against the Byzantines. 1200/596–7 Ibn al-Jawzı̄, theologian known for his cautious views and reservations about Sufism. 1204/601 Fourth Crusade, Latin armies sack Constantinople. Mai- monides, great rabbi and theologian of Cordoba. 1206/602–1296/696 Slave dynasty of Delhi among early political regimes establishing Muslim power in northern India. 1206/602–3 Qut.b ad-Dı̄n Aybek of Delhi, patron of a Sufi shrine in Ajmer. 1209/606 Ilyās ibn Yūsuf Niz.āmı̄ Ganjawı̄, Āzarbayjānı̄ poet known for his mystical didactic anthology The Quintet (Khamsa). 1209/605–6 Rūzbihān Baqlı̄ of Shiraz, major Persian author on mys- tical love. 1216/613 Al-Mālik az.-Z.āhir, Ayyūbid ruler, patron of Sufis and scholars. 1219/616 Majd ad-Dı̄n Baghdādı̄, Kubrāwı̄ shaykh and author. 1220/617 ‘Abd al-Khāliq Ghijduwānı̄, disciple of Hamadhani (?), propagated his teachings in Transoxania. Najm ad-Dı̄n Kubrā, Central Asian founder of Kubrāwı̄ya. 1221/618 Farı̄d ad-Dı̄n ‘At.t.ār, poet and hagiographer from Nishapur, author of The Conference of the Birds (Mant.iq at.-t.ayr) and other works. c. 1222/619 Jamāl ad-Dı̄n as-Sāwı̄, spread Qalandarı̄ya to central Middle East. c. 1225/622 Ah.mad Yasawı̄, Central Asian founder of the Yasawı̄ya. 1225/622 An-Nās.ir, ‘Abbāsid caliph who wanted to revive stagnant spiritual life of Islam and unite Islamic rulers against Mongol threat. xxxii CHRONOLOGY 1226/623 Francis of Assisi, Italian Christian mystic, founder of Fran- ciscans. 1227/626–7 Genghis Khan, infamous Mongol conqueror who ruled much of Central Asia and whose descendants went on to dominate much of the Middle East through the 15th/9th century. 1228/625 ‘Abd as-Salām ibn Mashı̄sh, Moroccan ascetic influential in the thought and practice of the Shādhilı̄ya. 1231/628 Bahā’ ad-Dı̄n Walad, Central Asian shaykh who fled west- ward with his family ahead of Genghis Khan’s invasion; father of Rūmı̄. 1234/631–2 Abū H.afs. ‘Umar as-Suhrawardı̄, Persian-born scholar, theorist and preacher who wrote The Benefits of Intimate Knowledge (‘Awārif al-ma‘ārif ). 1235/632 Ibn al-Fārid., Egyptian Arabic mystical poet, wrote Wine ode and Greater T-Rhyming Ode. 1235/632–3 Qut.b ad-Dı̄n Bakhtı̄yār Kākı̄, saint revered by Iltutmish, first king of the Slave dynasty of Delhi. 1236/633 Mu‘ı̄n ad-Dı̄n Chishtı̄, Indian shaykh and major figure of early history of Chishtı̄ya order. ‘Alā’ad-Dı̄n Kaykobad, Saljuqid Sul- tan of Rūm, patron of scholars, who built a magnificent mosque in Konya, where Rūmı̄’s family settled. 1238/635 Awh.ād ad-Dı̄n Kirmānı̄, Persian poet known for quatrains and acquaintance of Ibn al-‘Arabı̄. 1240/637–8 Muh.yı̄ ad-Dı̄n ibn al-‘Arabı̄, Iberian-born mystical au- thor who wrote Meccan Revelations and Bezels of Wisdom. Bābā Ilyās, mystic from Khurasan active in Anatolia. c. 1241/639 Burhān ad-Dı̄n Muh.aqqiq, teacher of Rūmı̄. 1244/641–2 Jalāl ad-Dı̄n Tabrı̄zı̄, one of the first Suhrawardı̄s to go to India. 1247/645 Shams ad-Dı̄n Tabrı̄zı̄, dervish was associated with Rūmı̄ and possibly the Kubrāwı̄ya; inspiration for much of Rūmı̄’s lyric. 1250/648–1517/923 Mamlūk dynasty ruled much of the central Mid- dle East from its capital at Cairo after stopping the Mongol advance at CHRONOLOGY xxxiii ‘Ayn Jalūt. Major patrons of the arts and architecture, and founders of many important Sufi institutions. 1252/649 Sa‘d ad-Dı̄n H.ammūya, Khurāsānı̄ Shāf‘ı̄ scholar. 1256/654 Najm ad-Dı̄n Dāyā Rāzı̄, Persian Kubrāwı̄ author and ex- egete, wrote Path of the Godservants to the Starting Point and the Re- turn (Mirs.ād al-‘ibād). 1258/657 Abū ’l-H.asan ash-Shādhilı̄, Moroccan mystic, Friend of God, and founder of Shādhilı̄ya. S.alāh. ad-Dı̄n Zarkūb, mystical gold- smith influential on Rūmı̄; his daughter became Sult. ān Walad’s wife. 1261/659 Sayf ad-Dı̄n Bākharzı̄, Central Asian pupil of Najm ad-Dı̄n Kubrā. Latin rule of Constantinople replaced by restored Byzantine rule. 1262/661 Bahā’ ad-Dı̄n Zakarı̄ya Mult.ānı̄, began the Indian Suhrawardı̄ya. Lāl Shāhbāz qalandar, Indian dervish of Suhrawardı̄ya. 1265/664 Farı̄d ad-Dı̄n Ganj-i Shakar, a.k.a. Bābā Farı̄d, an Indian Chishtı̄ shaykh and teacher of Niz.ām ad-Dı̄n Awliyā’. c. 1270–1/669 H.ājjı̄ Bektāsh Walı̄, Khurāsānı̄ dervish, eponym of Bektāshı̄ya. 1270/669 Ibn Sab‘ı̄n, Iberian Sufi and philosopher. 1273/672 Mawlānā Jalāl ad-Dı̄n Balkhı̄ Rūmı̄, Persian mystical poet known as original “Whirling Dervish,” author of Spiritual Couplets and other poetic works; inspiration for the Mawlawı̄ya order. 1274/672–3 Qād.ı̄ H.amı̄d ad-Dı̄n Nāgawrı̄, Indian Suhrawardı̄ scholar. S.adr ad-Dı̄n al-Qūnawı̄, Anatolian scholar, stepson and disciple of Ibn al‘Arabı̄, wrote commentary to Ibn al‘Arabı̄’s Bezels of Wisdom. Thomas Aquinas and Bonaventure, major Christian mystics and theolo- gians, members of Dominican and Franciscan orders respectively. 1276/675 Sayyid Ah.mad al-Badawı̄, Egyptian dervish of the Rifā‘ı̄ya. 1277/675–6 Mu‘ı̄n ad-Dı̄n Parwane, minister of the Saljūqid dynasty of Konya, major patron of Rūmı̄. 1278/677 Burhān ad-Dı̄n Ibrāhı̄m Dasūqı̄, Egyptian Sufi poet, founded Dasūqı̄ya order. xxxiv CHRONOLOGY 1282/680 ‘Azı̄z ad-Dı̄n Nasafı̄, Central Asian Shı̄‘ı̄ Sufi theorist and shaykh of the Kubrāwı̄ya. 1284/683 H.usām ad-Dı̄n Çelebı̄, disciple of Rūmı̄ and third leader of the Mawlawı̄ya. 1287/686 Abū ’l-‘Abbās al-Mursı̄, successor of Abū ‘l-H.asan ash- Shādhilı̄. 1289/688 Fakhr ad-Dı̄n ‘Irāqı̄, Persian poet associated with both Rūmı̄ and Ibn al‘Arabı̄ and known for his Divine Flashes (Lama‘āt). Late 13th/7th century Tapduq Emre, founder of a group of mystics in Anatolia. 1292/692 Mus.lih. ad-Dı̄n Sa‘dı̄, Persian wisdom author and poet. 1296/695 Sharaf ad-Dı̄n al-Bus.ı̄rı̄, Egyptian poet known for Burda in praise of the Prophet’s mystical status. 1309/709 Ibn ‘At.ā’ Allāh of Alexandria, Egyptian author and hagiog- rapher, member of Shādhilı̄ya, credited with writing Book of Aphoristic Wisdom. 1312/712 Sult.ān Walad, Turkish poet and author, son of Rūmı̄, founder of Mawlawı̄ya. 1316/716 Ramon Lull, Catalan (Spain) mystic and scholar influenced by Sufi literature. 1321/721 Yūnus Emre, major Turkish Sufi poet. Dante Alighieri, au- thor of The Divine Comedy. 1324/724 Shāh Abū ‘Alı̄ Qalandar of Pānı̄pāt, Indian Sufi who gave up theological study for a life of asceticism. 1325/725 Amı̄r Khusraw, best-known poet of early Muslim period in India; founder of Indo-Muslim musical tradition. Niz.ām ad-Dı̄n Awliyā’, Indian scholar and leader, propagator of Chishtı̄ya in India. 1327/728 Meister Eckhart, German Dominican mystic influenced by Maimonides, emphasized the divine ineffability. 1328/729 Amı̄r H.usaynı̄ Harawı̄, Suhrawardı̄ mystic and author. Ibn Taymı̄ya, major medieval Hanbalı̄ theologian, critic of Sufism. CHRONOLOGY xxxv 1330/730 ‘Abd ar-Razzāq al-Kāshānı̄, author of important lexicon of Sufi terminology. 1334/735 S.āfı̄ ad-Dı̄n Ardabı̄lı̄, Persian spiritual ancestor of S.afawid order. 1335/736 Abū ’l-Mafākhı̄r Yah.yā Bākharzı̄, Kubrāwı̄ shaykh. 1336/736–7 ‘Alā’ ad-Dawla Simnānı̄, Persian mystic and author. H.asan Sijzı̄ Dihlawı̄, Chishtı̄ hagiographer. 1337/737 Mah.mūd ash-Shabistarı̄, Persian author and poet who wrote Rose Garden of Mystery and Treatise on (Mystical) Felicity. 1337/738 Burhān ad-Dı̄n Gharı̄b, Indian scholar and successor of Niz.ām ad-Dı̄n Awliyā’ in the Chishtı̄ order. 1350/751 Ibn Qayyim al-Jawzı̄ya, major theologian, wrote the Mys- teries of Ritual Prayer in which he describes God as praising Himself through the mouth of the praiser. D. iyā’ ad-Dı̄n an-Nakhshabı̄, Persian author and poet associated with Chishtı̄ya, author of Book of the Parrot. 1353/754 Muh.ammad T.ughlūq, powerful Indian dynastic ruler, forced many intellectuals/mystics to leave Delhi for the Deccan in 1327. 1356/757 Nas.ı̄r ad-Dı̄n Mah.mūd Chirāgh-i Dihlı̄, Indian Chishtı̄ scholar and successor to Niz.ām ad-Dı̄n Awliyā’. 1357/758 D. iyā’ ad-Dı̄n Baranı̄, Indian historiographer who wrote about Niz.ām ad-Dı̄n and his influence in the Chishtı̄ya. 1368/770 Ming dynasty overthrows Mongol Yuan dynasty. 1371/772–3 Tāj ad-Dı̄n Subkı̄, classified 25 different types of miracles. c.1377/779 Ibn Bat.t.ūta, North African whose sweeping account of global travels provide much information on Sufi life and institutions. 1381/782 Sharaf ad-Dı̄n Manı̄rı̄, wrote letters, Indian leader of Fir- dawsı̄ya. 1384/785 Jalāl ad-Dı̄n H.usayn al-Bukhārı̄ (“Makhdūm-i Jahānı̄yān”), prolific writer in all religious fields, settled in Ucch, northeast of Multan. 1385/787 Mı̄r Sayyid ‘Alı̄ Hamadhānı̄, active Kubrāwı̄ founder in Kashmir. xxxvi CHRONOLOGY 1389/791 Muh.ammad Shams ad-Dı̄n H.āfiz., major Persian mystical poet. Khwāja Bahā’ ad-Dı̄n Naqshband, Central Asian Sufi and founder of Naqshbandı̄ya, considered seventh khwāja in Abū Yūsuf’s line. 1390/792 Ibn ‘Abbād ar-Rundı̄, Ibero-Moroccan Shādhilı̄ spiritual leader, famed for letters. 1391/794 Bahā’ ad-Dı̄n Naqshband, Central Asian shaykh-eponym. 1394/796–7 Fad.l Allāh Astarābādı̄, founding leader of the H.urūfı̄ya tradition. Early 15th/9th century Kaygusūz Abdāl, Turkish mystical author and poet, Bektāshı̄. 1405/807–8 Timūr Lang, founder of Timūrid dynasty and reputed an- cestor of Babur, who established beginning of Mughal dynastic rule over northwestern India in 1526. He and his line were major patrons of the arts and of Sufism. 1406/808–9 Ibn Khaldūn, major North African historian and philosopher of history whose Introduction offers much information about Sufism. 1408/810 Muh.ammad Shı̄rı̄n Maghribı̄, Persian Kubrāwı̄ author, poet. 1417/820 ‘Imād ad-Dı̄n Nesı̄mı̄, H.urūfı̄ lyric poet inspired by H.allāj. 1419/822 Khwāja Muh.ammad Parsā, early Naqshbandı̄ master. Su- laymān Çelebı̄, major Turkish poet on the Prophet. 1422/825 Sayyid Muh.ammad al-H.usaynı̄ Gı̄sū Darāz, South Indian scholar, disciple of Chirāgh-i Dihlı̄, author in Chishtı̄ya order. c. 1425/829 Sayyid Ashraf Jahāngı̄r Simnānı̄, Persian saint, theorist and teacher who lived in India and was associated with many orders (mainly Chishtı̄ya). ‘Abd al-Karı̄m al-Jı̄lı̄, mystic of Iraq, author of The Perfect Person. 1431/834 Shāh Ni‘mat Allāh Walı̄, Syrian-born author founded Ni‘mat-Allāhı̄ya and studied theology of Ibn al-‘Arabı̄. 1453/857 Fall of Constantinople to Ottoman Turkish Sultan Mehmet I the Conqueror, continuation of dramatic expansion of the empire. 1459/863 Muh.ammad Aq Shams ad-Dı̄n, mystic who influenced Mehmet the Conqueror. CHRONOLOGY xxxvii c. 1465/869 Abū ‘Abd Allāh al-Jazūlı̄, Moroccan author of popular Sufi prayer book on trust in God and the Messenger. c. 1470/874 Eshrefoğlu Rūmı̄, Turkish mystical poet. 1490/895 Khwāja ‘Ubayd Allāh Ah.rār, Central Asian Naqshbandı̄ shaykh. Abū ‘Abd Allāh Muh.ammad as-Sanūsı̄, Maghribı̄ author, scholar, and ascetic. 1492/897 Mawlāna ‘Abd ar-Rah.mān Jāmı̄, Persian poet and hagiog- rapher, Naqshbandı̄, author of The Seven Thrones and Warm Breezes of Intimacy. 1492/898 Muslim rule in Spain ends with the expulsion of the Nas.rid dynasty from Granada. 1494/899 Ah.mad Zarrūq, Moroccan mystical author. 15th/9th–16th/10th century Period of the Walı̄ Songo, “nine saints” of Indonesia. Balı̄m Sult.ān, second master of the Bektāshı̄ order. 1501/906–1738/1151 S.afawid dynasty rules most of Persia, from Shāh Ismā‘ı̄l’s rise to power in 1501. Shi‘ism became the official creed of Iran, and the S.afawid rulers were sometimes called Sufi or Grand Sophi. Major patron of Sufism and the arts, the dynasty ended with an Afghan invasion. 1501/906–7 Mı̄r ‘Alı̄ Shı̄r Nawā’ı̄, Central Asian Naqshbandı̄ who wrote a Chagatay version of the Conference of the Birds, greatest rep- resentative of Chagatay Turkish literature, accomplished artist. 1503/909 H. amd Allāh H.amdı̄, wrote Turkish version of Zulaykhã’s love for Joseph, symbol of enrapturing power of love. 1505/911 Jalāl ad-Dı̄n as-Suyūtı̄, major religious scholar, exegete, ad- ministrator of large Shādhilı̄ khānqāh in Cairo. 1506/912 Shams ad-Dı̄n Muh.ammad Lāhijı̄, Persian poet and shaykh of Nūrbakhshı̄ya. 1511/917 ‘Alı̄ ibn Maymūn al-Fāsı̄ spreads Shādhilı̄ya into Syria. 1518/924 Kabı̄r, Indian Muslim mystical poet influential in the be- ginnings of Sikh tradition in connection with Gurū Nanak. Hindu Ma- japahit kingdom in Java overthrown by Muslim rule. xxxviii CHRONOLOGY c. 1530/923 Muh.ammad ibn ‘Īsā al-Mukhtārı̄, Moroccan founder of the ‘Īsāwı̄ya order. 1524/930 Ismā‘ı̄l, S.afawid Shāh whose victory in 1501 made Shı̄‘ism the official creed of Persia. 1530/936–7 Bābūr, first ruler of Mughal dynasty which eventually ruled most of India and present-day Pakistan, descendent of the Timurid dynasty. c. 1532/938 ‘Alı̄ ibn H.usayn Wā‘iz. Kāshifı̄, whose “Tricklings from the Fountain of Life” is a main source of knowledge about Khwāja Ah.rār. 1536/942 Jamālı̄ Kanbōh, Iskandar Lodi’s mystical court poet. 1537/944 ‘Abd al-Quddūs Gangōhı̄, Indian Chistı̄ poet and Ibn al‘Arabı̄ apologist. 1556/963 Hamayun, second great Mughal emperor, father of Akbar. Ignatius of Loyola, Spanish mystic, founder of Jesuits order. 1560/968 H.amza Fans.ūrı̄, Indonesian mystical author and poet, pop- ularizer of Malay syair poetic genre. 1562/969–70 Muh.ammad Ghawth Gwāliyārı̄, Indian Sufi of Shat.- t.ārı̄ya. 1565/973 ‘Abd al-Wahhāb ash-Sha‘rānı̄, Egyptian mystical hagiogra- pher. 1566/974 Sulaymān the Magnificent, Ottoman ruler responsible for dramatic expansion of the empire, major patron of Sufis. 1567/975 Shaykh ‘Alı̄ al-Mut.t.aqı̄, Indian leader of the Chishtı̄ya, as- sociated with other orders after settling in Mecca. 1572/980 Shaykh Salı̄m Chishtı̄, spiritual guide of Emperor Akbar. 1582/990 Theresa of Avila, Christian mystic of Spain, author of Inte- rior Castle, with its metaphor of seven mansions of the soul. 1585/993 Bāyazı̄d Ans.ārı̄ (Pı̄r-i Rawshan or “Radiant Master”), founder of Rawshanı̄ya movement, applied Persian metrics to Pashto. CHRONOLOGY xxxix 1591/999–1000 Muh.ammad ash-Shı̄rāzı̄ ‘Urfı̄, one of Akbar’s court poets, lamented degeneration of Sufism. John of the Cross, Spanish Christian mystic, author of Ascent of Mount Carmel. 1592/1001 Wang Daiyu, early translator of Sufi concepts into Chinese. 17th/11th century Bābā Lāl Das, Hindu sage, had disputations with Dārā Shikūh. Sayyid Sult.ān, taught even Iblı̄s should be honored since he once held a high position, and one should honor and obey one’s shaykh even if he is a Satan. Sunbul Efendi, Shaykh of Khalwatı̄ya or- der in Istanbul. Merkez Efendi, successor of Sunbul Efendi. Lāl Udero, saint claimed by both Hindus and Muslims, defender of the unity of be- ing. Adam Olearius, translated Sa‘dı̄’s Gulistān into German, making it a favorite of European intellectuals. H.ajji Muh.ammad, wrote The Book of Light, important Sufi work in Bengālı̄. 1603/1012 Khwāja Bāqı̄ Bi-’llāh, Afghan Naqshbandı̄ scholar and au- thor, teacher of Ah.mad Sirhindı̄. 1605/1014 Akbar, Mogul emperor, Babur’s grandson, tried to estab- lish a religious eclecticism containing the best elements of all the reli- gions he knew, frequented Sufi shaykhs. 1621/1031 ‘Abd ar-Ra’ūf al-Munāwı̄, Egyptian hagiographer. Bahā’ ad-Dı̄n Āmilı̄, Persian Shı̄‘ı̄ Sufi poet. 1624/1034 Ah.mad Sirhindı̄, Naqshbandı̄ reformer. 1627/1036–7 Jahāngı̄r, Mughal emperor, adorned Ajmer, Mu‘ı̄n ad- Dı̄n Chishtı̄’s city, with beautiful marble buildings. Ah.mad Bābā, legal scholar influential on Sufism in Niger. 1630/1039 Shams ad-Dı̄n as-Samat.rānı̄, a.k.a. Shams ad-Dı̄n of Pasai, Indonesian Sufi scholar involved in the wujūdı̄ controversy. 1631/1040–1 Ismā‘ı̄l Rusı̄hı̄ Anqarāwı̄, Turkish mystic who wrote fine commentary on Rūmı̄’s Mathnawı̄. Mumtaz Mahal, wife of Shāh Jahān, who built the Tāj Mahal as a monumental tomb for her. 1633/1042–3 Muh.ammad Ghawthı̄, member of the Shat.t.arı̄ya order, composed hagiography of 575 Indo-Muslim saints. 1635/1044–5 Miyān Mı̄r, nickname of Shaykh Muh.ammad Mı̄r of Sind, an Indian Qādirı̄ Sufi and spiritual counselor to certain Mughal rulers. xl CHRONOLOGY 1640/1050 S.adr ad-Dı̄n Shı̄rāzı̄ (Mulla S.adrā), major philosopher deeply influenced by Suhrawardian thought. 1642/1052 Muh.addith ‘Abd al-H.aqq Dihlawı̄, famous Indian H.adı̄th scholar and hagiographer. 1646/1056 Madhō Lāl H.usayn, Panjabi Qādirı̄ poet. 1647/1057 Bı̄bı̄ Jamāl Khatūn, Indian mystic, sister of Miyān Mı̄r, and member of Qādirı̄ya. 1653/1063 Ja‘far al-‘Aydarūs, translated Saf ı̄nat al-awliyā’ (Biogra- phies of the Saints) into Arabic. 1658/1068 Nūr ad-Dı̄n Rānı̄rı̄, Indian Rifā‘ı̄ Sufi scholar in Mecca, opponent of H.amza Fans.ūrı̄ and Shams ad-Dı̄n as-Samat.rānı̄. 1659/1069 Dārā Shikūh, Indian member of Qādirı̄ya known for the treatise The Confluence of the Two Seas. 1659/1069–70 Shāh Jahān, father of Dārā Shikūh, Mughal builder of Tāj Mahal. 1661/1071–2 Sarmad, Jewish convert to Sufism, executed in Mughal India; shocked listeners by calling people to imitate Satan. 1661/1072 Mullā Shāh Badakhshı̄, Indian mystic and poet, Qādirı̄, disciple and successor of Miyān Mı̄r. 1668/1078–9 Pı̄r Muh.ammad Ma‘s.ūm, son of Ah.mad Sirhindı̄, who claimed Muh.ammad Ma‘sūm was second after him in ranks of four men selected by God. 1669/1079–80 Mirān H.usayn Shāh, saint of Bijapur, translated Hamadhānı̄’s Tamhı̄dāt into Dakhnı̄ Urdū. 1670/1081 Birth of Liu Chih, Chinese scholar and hagiographer who translated Sufi texts into Chinese. 1677/1088 Angelus Silesius, German Christian mystic. 1678/1088 Sı̄dı̄ Mah.mūd al-Baghdādı̄, West African Sufi shaykh thought to be a martyr and namesake of Mah.mūdı̄ya. 1681/1092 Jahānārā, Mogul princess and student of Mullā Shāh, sis- ter of Awrangzeb and Dārā Shikūh. CHRONOLOGY xli 1683/1094 Shaykh ‘Abd ar-Rah.mān Chishtı̄, Indian leader of Chishtı̄ya. Ottoman dynasty’s second siege of Vienna unsuccessful. 1689/1100 Khushh.āl Khān Khattak, translated works of Sa‘dı̄ and Jāmı̄ into Pashto from Persian. 1689/1100 Zı̄b an-Nisā’, daughter of Mughal Awrangzeb, talented poetess. 1690/1102 Ibrāhı̄m ibn H.asan al-Kuranı̄, Kurdish mystic. 1691/1102 Edward Pocock, British scholar who misrepresented H.allāj’s image in his writings. Sult.ān Bāhū, major Panjābı̄ mystical poet. 1693/1104 ‘Abd ar-Ra’ūf as-Sinkilı̄, Indonesian Shāfi‘ı̄ scholar, mem- ber of Shat.t.ārı̄ya, credited with bringing Islam to Acheh in Sumatra. 1694/1105 Niyāzı̄ Mis.rı̄ Efendi, Turkish poet, spiritual leader who used traditional methods of interpretation in his commentary. 1697/1108–9 Nasir ‘Ali Sirhindı̄, Indian Naqshbandı̄, poet, compa- triot of Bedil. Early 18th/12th century Mı̄rzā Khān Ans.āri, descendent of Bāyazı̄d Ans.ārı̄, a leading mystical poet of the later days of Awrangzı̄b’s reign. 18th/12th century Badr al-Hijāzı̄, Arabian who wrote satiric material on the decline of Sufism. Ibrāhı̄m H.aqqı̄ Erzerumlu, Turkish Sufi writer. Hāshim Shāh, contemporary of Bullhe Shāh, used folk tales for mystical expression. Khwāja Muh.ammad Banqash, expressed mystical teachings in Pashto, poet and member of the Chishtı̄ order. 1700/1111–2 ‘Abd al-Ah.ad Gul, Indian master/teacher of Sa‘d Allāh Gulshān. Fl. ‘Abd al-‘Azı̄z ad-Dabbāgh, Moroccan neo-Sufi. c. 1707/1119 Walı̄ Deccanı̄, great mystical poet of south India. 1717/1130 Mah.mūd Bah.rı̄, Indian Chishtı̄ Persian and Urdu poet. 1718/1130 Shāh ‘Ināyat Shahı̄d, mystical leader who attracted a large number of Sufi aspirants. 1719/1132 Hilāl ad-Dı̄n Qi Jingyi, founder of Chinese branch of Qādirı̄ya. xlii CHRONOLOGY 1721/1133 Mı̄rzā ‘Abd al-Qādıir Bı̄dil, poet who criticized Sufis who constantly mentioned food. 1724/1136–7 Ismā‘ı̄l Haqqı̄ Bursali, Turkish mystical poet who wrote a commentary on Rūmı̄’s Mathnawı̄. 1728/1140–1 Sa‘d Allāh Gulshān, prolific Persian poet, fond of mu- sic and part of the musical society of Delhi. 1731/1143 ‘Abd al-Ghanı̄ an-Nābulusı̄, Syrian scholar of the Shāfi’ı̄ school, poet and Sufi commentator on Ibn al-Fārid., member of Naqsh- bandı̄ and Qādirı̄ orders. 1738/1151 Sulaymān Nahı̄fı̄, translated commentary on the Math- nawı̄ of Rūmı̄ into Turkish. 1740/1153 Pı̄r Muh.ammad Zubayr, fourth and last Indian Mujaddidı̄ Naqshbandı̄ qayyūm. Mid-18th/12th century Dı̄wān Gidumal, British minister of Sindh, gave invading Nādir Shāh some dust of the city’s saints. 1747/1160 Nādir Shāh, Afghan military leader who conquered Persia in 1722. 1752/1165 Shāh ‘Abd Al-Lat.ı̄f Bhitā’ı̄, mystic/poet from Hyderabad- Sindh. 1754/1167 Jān Allāh Rizwı̄, outstanding Persian poet from Sind. 1759/1172 Nās.ir Muh.ammad, Indian Mujaddidı̄ Naqshbandı̄, father of Mı̄r Dard, wrote Urdu poetry under name ‘Andalı̄b (“Nightingale”). 1760/1173–4 Makhdūm Muh.ammad Hāshim, sober mystic who at- tacked Sufis who defended the emotional side of religion, such as danc- ing in Makli Hill’s cemeteries. 1762/1175–6 Shāh Walı̄ Allāh of Delhı̄, Indian scholar and reformer, translated Qur’ān into Persian, member of both Naqshbandı̄ and Qādirı̄. 1766/1180 Ma Laichi, major Chinese Naqshbandı̄ leader. 1767/1181 Bulhe Shāh, greatest Panjābı̄ Sufi poet. 1778/1192 ‘Abd ar-Rahı̄m Girhori, Suhrawardı̄ mystic and missionary. CHRONOLOGY xliii 1781/1195 Maz.har Jān-i Janān, Mujaddidı̄ Naqshbandı̄, militant ad- versary of Indian Shı̄‘a. Ma Mingxin, major figure in Chinese Sufism. 1785/1199 Khwāja Mı̄r Dard, major Indian Naqshbandı̄ poet and au- thor. Fl. ‘Abd as.-S.amad of Palembang (Sumatra). Late 18th/early 13th century Wārith Shāh, Panjābı̄ poet. 1792/1207 Muh.ammad ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhāb, major modern critic of Sufism. 1799/1213–4 Ghālib Dede, classical Turkish poet, member of the Mawlawı̄ya and shaykh of the Galata tekke in Istanbul. 1809/1224 Ah.mad ibn ‘Ajı̄ba, Moroccan scholar known for commen- taries on the works of earlier Sufis and his autobiography. 1810/1225 Mı̄r Taqı̄ Mı̄r, poet who wrote mystical verse in Urdu, though he was not formally part of a Sufi community. 1811/1226 Sı̄dı̄ Mukhtār al-Kuntı̄, West African Sufi tribal leader. 1815/1230 Ah.mad ibn Muh.ammad at-Tı̄jānı̄, North African Sufi founder. 1823/1239 Mulay al-‘Arabı̄ ad-Darqāwı̄, North African Sufi reformer and founder of Darqāwı̄ya branch of Shādhilı̄ya. 1824/1239 Shāh ‘Abd al-Azı̄z, Indian Naqshbandı̄ legal scholar and exegete. 1826/1242 ‘Abd al-Wahhāb Sachal Sarmast, Sindhı̄ Sufi poet. 1831/1246 Sayyid Ah.mad Brelwı̄, an Indian Sufi reformer who sought to rid Islam of elements of Shı̄‘ı̄ and Hindu syncretism. Shāh Ismā‘ı̄l Shahı̄d, Indian scholar and reformer. 1838/1253 Ah.mad Ibn Idrı̄s, Moroccan reformer and Sufi author. 1838/1254 Silvestre de Sacy, early master of Arabic studies and Ori- entalist translator. 1843/1259 Dāwūd al-Fatānı̄, Malay participant in wujūdı̄ controversy. 1851/1267–8 Mu’min, important early modern Urdu poet. xliv CHRONOLOGY Mid-19th/13th century Especially in North and Central Africa, Sufi organizations play important roles in fighting against colonial rulers. 1856/1272–3 Joseph von Hammer-Purgstall, German who translated Sufi poetry. 1858/1274 Engku Muda Rāja ‘Abd Allāh, Malay ruler who was also a Naqshbandı̄ shaykh. 1859/1276 Muh.ammad ibn ‘Ali as-Sanūsı̄, North African scholar who founded the Sanūsı̄ya. 1864/1281 Al-H.ajj ‘Umar ibn Sa‘ı̄d Tall, West African Tı̄jānı̄ leader. 1866/1282–3 Friedrich Rückert, major German scholar of Sufism. 1869/1286 Mı̄rzā Asad Allāh Ghālib, major poet in Urdū, one of whose major themes was that only death expresses true mystical love. 1871/1288 Ma Hualong, Chinese Sufi martyr. 1874/1291 Ma Fuchu, Chinese scholar of Yunnan, translated Sufi texts into Chinese. 1877/1294 F. A. D. Tholuck, German author of the first comprehen- sive book on Sufism, published in 1821. 1882/1300 Edward Henry Palmer, author of Oriental Mysticism (1867). 1883/1300 Amı̄r ‘Abd al-Qādir ibn Muh.yı̄ ad-Dı̄n al-H.asanı̄, Algerian Sufi who fought against the French colonials, eventually being sent into exile. 1885/1302-3 Ernest Trumpp, German missionary who published the collection The Book of Shah in 1866. 1892/1309–10 Sir James W. Redhouse, British orientalist who studied Rūmı̄. 1898/1315 Sir Sayyid Ah.mad Khān, reformer of Naqshbandı̄ya and Indian Islam. 20th/14th–15th century Sufi orders begin to be established in Eu- rope and the Americas. CHRONOLOGY xlv 1914/1332 Shiblı̄ Nu‘mānı̄, wrote Urdū biography of Rūmı̄ (1903). Ma Qixi, Chinese Sufi reformer. 1925/1344 Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, founder of the Turkish Republic, after declaring a secularized state, outlaws all dervish orders lest they agitate against his reforms. 1927/1346 Amadu Bamba Mbacké, Qādirı̄ shaykh of Senegal. 1933/1351 Sayyid Ah.mad Sanūsı̄, North African mystic and third shaykh of the Sanūsı̄ya. 1934/1353 Abū ’l-‘Abbās Ah.mad Al-‘Alawı̄, Darqāwı̄ saint who then began his own order focusing on spiritual retreat. 1938/1357 Sir Muh.ammad Iqbāl, Indian Sufi scholar, philosopher, author. 1943/1362 Muh.ammad Ashraf ‘Alı̄ Thanvı̄, Indian Sufi leader. 1946/1366 Amı̄r H.amza, author of mystical poetry in Malay. Mid-20th/14th century Predominantly Muslim nations from Mo- rocco to Malaysia gain independence from European colonial rule. 1951/1371 Sayyid Zawqı̄ Shāh, Indian Chishtı̄ shaykh. 1958/1378 Ma Zhenwu, Chinese Sufi leader of Hui rebellion. 1978/1399 Shahı̄d Allāh Farı̄dı̄. 1986/1407 Bawa Muhaiyaddeen, Sri Lankan leader of major Ameri- can Sufi group headquartered in Pennsylvania. 2003/1424 Annemarie Schimmel, German scholar who made many major contributions to the understanding of Sufi thought and literature. Introduction “Sufism was once a reality without a name, and now it has become a name without a reality,”1 lamented a revered Sufi of nearly a millen- nium ago, already pining for the “good old days.” That ancient ob- server was talking about a rich, complex religious and cultural phe- nomenon, an aspect of the tradition known as Islam, that he and his contemporary Sufis had already long understood to be rooted in the very beginnings of the Islamic faith. An insight into what he meant will unfold in the next few pages, and the remainder of the present volume is devoted to providing a wide range of details to fill out this more gen- eral initial impression. OVERVIEW OF THE HISTORY OF SUFISM The history of Sufism is not the story of some aberrant sect or cult, no mere chronicle of a motley collection of wayward Muslims. It is inte- gral to the history of the global faith community of Islam. Wherever Muslims have traveled over nearly 14 centuries, there Sufis have gone. Today, virtually wherever there are Muslims, one also finds Sufis—with the sole notable exception, perhaps, of parts of Saudi Arabia. Spanning, as it does, such vast expanses of time, space, and cultural diversity, the history of Sufism is understandably complex and full of twists and turns. Beginning with disparate individuals known for outstanding piety and later identified as the earliest Sufis, Sufism came to develop a host of social, ritual, artistic, institutional, and political manifestations. Orders spread from the central Middle East across North Africa and Western and Central Asia, and eventually into parts of Africa and South and Southeast Asia. Sufism and its organizations have fallen on hard times off and on during this long history, especially the 18th and 19th 1 2 INTRODUCTION centuries, when they were subject to the stresses of Western colonialism. But Sufism has also proven amazingly durable. During the Soviet era, Sufism was a major factor in the survival of Islam in the so-called Five Stans—the former southern Soviet republics of Central Asia, such as Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan. In more recent times, even the less-than- devout Saddam Hussein cultivated relationships with the leaders of im- portant Sufi groups in Iraq, such as the Qādirı̄ya order. (This suggests only that Hussein was eager to take advantage of their influence with segments of the population, not that he shared their religious views.) To- day in the United States, one of the best-selling poets in English (trans- lation) is Jalāl ad-Dı̄n Rūmı̄, the original “Whirling Dervish” and per- haps the most celebrated Sufi of all. Here is a brief overview of how this fascinating history unfolded, starting from the beginning. From the Sufi perspective, at the heart of religious faith is a distinc- tive and intensely relational kind of religious experience embodied most strikingly in God’s choosing, mentoring, and sending prophetic mes- sengers to deliver the divine communication to humankind. The revela- tory succession begins with Adam and proceeds through a long list that includes such biblical figures as Abraham, Moses, David, Solomon, and Jesus and non-Biblical Arabian prophets such as S.ālih. and Hūd, culmi- nating in Muh.ammad. Sufi authors see a number of common features in the religious experiences of these individuals, including intimate rela- tionships with God, occasional manifestations of miraculous power, and the willingness to be led on a journey of discovery requiring complete trust in the divine guide. The prophets are, in a word, the prime models for every Sufi seeker on the spiritual path. Prophets are specially chosen human beings and represent a level of experience far beyond what the average spiritual seeker could expect to attain. Nevertheless, Sufis have long regarded the last Prophet as a paragon of devotion, simplicity of life, mystical attainment, and spiri- tual authority. In addition, Sufi sources regard various individuals who lived during Muh.ammadís lifetime—part of the first generation of Mus- lims called the Companions—as exemplars of a more accessible level of spiritual commitment. They single out the Prophet’s barber, Salmān the Persian, for the blessing of his being so close to the Prophet; the “Weepers,” a group of ascetics who embodied compunction for their sins; the “People of the Bench (or Portico)” who gave up worldly com- fort for the privilege of living near the Prophet; and people like the first INTRODUCTION 3 successors to Muh.ammad, Abū Bakr and ‘Umar, as models of absolute commitment and devotion to the Messenger of God. After the Prophet’s death in 11/632 and on into the late second/eighth century, individuals most noted for the quality of their religious com- mitment were generally those most inclined to self-discipline and an as- cetical life. People like the great preacher H.asan of Basra (in southern Iraq) gave voice to the need for constant vigilance and austerity, after the model of the Prophet, who had dressed in rough clothing, led his own donkey around, ate from a rough wooden bowl while seated on the ground, and refused to stand on ceremony. But by the end of the second/ eighth century, a new voice was being heard with a startling new mes- sage. Rābi‘a, a woman also of Basra, dared to suggest that human be- ings could speak of how God’s love for them—perhaps even a mutual love—trumped all other concerns and banished both fear of hellfire and hope for reward. It is often said that the love she preached is precisely the difference between asceticism and true mysticism, and some schol- ars consider this the beginning of Sufism strictly so-called. H.asan lived during the era of the first major Islamic dynasty, the Umayyad, which expanded Islamdom all the way to Spain in the West and to the Indus River in the East. Rābi‘a’s life spanned the transition from the Umayyads, with their capital in Damascus, to the beginning of the ‘Abbāsid dynasty, which founded a new capital at Baghdad in the heart of Iraq in 145/762. Rābi‘a’s bold insights were in the vanguard of dramatic new devel- opments to unfold during the third/ninth century. Intriguing characters like Dhū ’n-Nūn of Egypt, Bāyazı̄d of Bistam (in Iran), and H.allāj of Baghdad fairly blurted out their deepest insights into their relationships with God, unable to restrain themselves. The result was strikingly exu- berant assertions that seemed to many observers to suggest that these characters were, at best, mad, and, at worst, heretics. All three thus ran afoul of certain religious and political authorities, who, to say the least, took a jaundiced view of their claims. But it was H.allāj who paid with his life and was executed, ostensibly on the charge of blasphemy, for saying “I am the Truth.” Sufis sympathetic to him interpret his utterance as the uncontrollable response to a divine intimacy that annihilates the human personality, leaving nothing but the reality of God behind. At the same time, Sufism’s earliest “theorists” began to reflect on the often rough-hewn expressions of their contemporary mystics. Authors 4 INTRODUCTION like Junayd and Muh.āsibı̄ of Baghdad opted for a more theologically cautious approach, one often referred to as “sober” mysticism, as a counter to the “intoxicated” outbursts of their less circumspect contem- poraries. Scholars today often refer to these first three centuries or so in the history of Sufism—from the Prophet’s time up to about 339/950— as the “formative” period, focusing on the development of an emerging sensitivity to the various manifestations of interior spiritual experience.2 Others have seen the rise of individualized religion as a reaction against formalist, authority-based institutional religion as a key characteristic of the period.3 Beginning around the later fourth/10th century, both the history of Sufism as written by Sufis and systematic analysis of Sufi thought emerged in the form of the first of a number of major compendia of spir- ituality. Paul Nwyia calls this second period that of “elucidation,” Anne- marie Schimmel that of “consolidation.”4 It runs from about 339/950 to 494/1100 and is characterized by the evolution of a more or less stan- dard array of Sufi practices and technical terminology, especially as recorded in the classical “manuals” or compendia of spirituality by au- thors already mentioned. The authors of the earliest of these hand- books—Sarrāj, Kalābādhı̄, and Abū T.ālib al-Makkı̄—all had among their purposes in writing the need to defend Sufism against a growing chorus of criticism from religious officialdom. They were at pains to demonstrate that, far from playing fast and loose with the Islamic faith tradition and its sources, the Sufis represented the highest values in the quest for religious knowledge. Turning the arguments of their critics back against them, they asserted that it was in fact only the Sufis who were qualified to build on the traditional acquired religious sciences and move beyond them toward experiential knowledge. In addition to ex- plaining key concepts and central ritual practices, these compendia also analyze the elements of spiritual experience systematically and lay them out in typological structures designed to allow seekers to monitor their progress with the guidance of a shaykh knowledgeable in the “science of hearts.” One common concern of the manualists and other “theorists” of Su- fism was an attempt to define Sufism. Some of the more ancient explicit and generally positive statements about Sufism, as well as some more recent explorations, have focused on the origins of the name. Perhaps the most broadly accepted explanation was the etymological derivation INTRODUCTION 5 of the term from the Arabic for “wool,” s.ūf, associating practitioners with a preference for poor, rough clothing. This explanation clearly identifies Sufism with ascetical practice and the importance of mani- festing spiritual poverty through material poverty. In fact, some of the earliest Western descriptions of individuals now widely associated with the larger phenomenon of Sufism identified them with the Arabic term faqı̄r, mendicant, or its most common Persian equivalent, darwı̄sh. Historically important written sources by Sufi authors, however, pay far more attention to sayings of early spiritual masters who defined tas.awwuf (the Arabic term commonly translated as “Sufism”) variously in terms of interior attitudes rather than exterior practices. Many of these definitions also turned on etymological derivations, most often as- sociating Sufism with the Arabic for “purity,” s.afā’, with its connota- tions of elite spiritual and moral development. Authors of classical handbooks of Sufi thought and practice often produce lists of defini- tions of Sufism in the form of responses of famous early teachers to in- quiries from their followers about the meaning of Sufism or about the qualities of “the true Sufi.”5 The fifth/11th century witnessed a second wave of influential Sufi works, including major Arabic manuals by Qushayrı̄ and Abū H.āmid al- Ghazālı̄, as well as the first manual in Persian, by Hujwı̄rı̄. There were also new works on the history of Sufism itself by ‘Abd ar-Rah.mān as- Sulamı̄ and ‘Abd Allāh Ans.ārı̄, demonstrating a growing sense of Su- fism as an integral part of the Islamic tradition. An important theme was the systematic establishment of sainthood as a parallel to prophethood. Just as Muslims had traditionally spoken of Muh.ammad as the “seal” of the prophets, Sufis now spoke of leading Friends of God as contenders for the title “seal” of the saints. Sufi authors also further elaborated dis- tinctively mystical ways of reading and interpreting the Qur’ān, shoring up what would become an important foundation for Sufi exegesis. And all the while, Sufis found new ways and venues in which to gather in greater numbers around shaykhs reputed for their spiritual acumen. Men like Ghazālı̄ sometimes gained notoriety through their professorial po- sitions at madrasas, institutions of higher learning, which were spon- sored by highly placed officials in various dynasties. By the end of this second period, the ‘Abbāsid dynasty was already experiencing serious difficulties maintaining central control of a far- flung empire. At the fringes, from Spain eastward along North Africa as 6 INTRODUCTION well as from Iran eastward to the edges of what is now India, indepen- dent principalities were declaring themselves free of Baghdad. More ominously still, the new Islamized Saljūqid Turkish dynasty had swept in from Central Asia in 447/1055 and reduced the Caliphate to a shadow of its former self by setting up the parallel institutions of the Sultanate as the real power in Baghdad. From about 494/1100 until the late eighth/14th century, the three hall- marks of Sufism were developments in institutionalization, intellectual- ization, and the refinement of various literary and artistic forms as ve- hicles for the expression of Sufi values. The first trend manifested itself in the formalization of the earliest Sufi orders, with their normative un- derstandings of the relationships between aspirant and shaykh, and set requirements for membership and training. Though tradition accords the distinction of founding the first order to ‘Abd al-Qādir al-Jı̄lānı̄, there were likely other “intentional communities” before him (such as that associated with Kāzarūnı̄ in southwestern Iran). What is new in this “institutionalization” is the beginning of the growth of well-endowed stable foundations, with their own dedicated facilities for community living, spiritual formation, and ritual practice. Major orders that came into being during this period include the Mawlawı̄ya in Turkey, better known as the Whirling Dervishes because of the paraliturgical dance that imitates the movements of the spheres in search of their center; the Suhrawardı̄ya farther east in Iran, whose principal handbook proved to be the last of the “classical” manuals and was adopted by a number of other orders as well; and the Chishtı̄ya, which became a dominant order in South Asia. What some scholars call “intellectualization” was manifest in the “speculative” Sufism of authors like Rūzbihān Baqlı̄ from Shiraz, Iran, and Ibn al-‘Arabı̄, who was born in Spain but was a longtime resident of Damascus and other parts of the central Middle East. These and other writers developed often elaborate systems of psychology and cosmol- ogy to explain the larger meanings of Sufi spiritual experience. Ibn al- ‘Arabı̄’s influence was so pervasive that countless major Sufi theorists after his time continued to process his thought, either to support or re- fute it, concerning the nature of mystical union. Surely one of the greatest of Sufism’s contributions to Islam, and to the larger world as well, has been its wealth of creative imagination in literature and the arts. Some of the world’s greatest religious poets and INTRODUCTION 7 prose stylists have been members of Sufi orders, and they have left lit- erary monuments in Arabic, Persian, Turkish, and a dozen other major Islamicate languages. Ibn al-Fārid, Farı̄d ad-Dı̄n ‘At.t.ār, and Rūmı̄ are but a few major seventh/13th century masters. Calligraphers, too, were well-represented among the ranks of the Sufi orders. Then, as now, the arts cost money to produce, and to sustain themselves Sufi institutions needed the support of endowments funded by royal and other wealthy patrons. All of these developments within Sufism took place in a variety of changing political contexts during this period. The Umayyad caliphate of Spain collapsed in 423/1031 and was supplanted by the theologically conservative Almoravid and Almohad dynasties of Moroccan origin. Eastward across North Africa, the Ismā‘ı̄lı̄ (Shı̄‘ı̄) Fātimids rose to power and founded the new capital of Cairo in 359/969, developing that city into a major Mediterranean center of culture and the arts. When the Crusaders began to threaten, the Fātimid rulers called on the Kurdish Sunni military hero Saladin for assistance. He responded and soon re- placed the Fātimids with his own Ayyūbid dynasty in 567/1171, under which Cairo was gradually transformed into a center of Sunni Islam and of major patronage of Sufi individuals and organizations. By 648/1250, a revolt by the Turkic palace guard, known as the Mamlūks, resulted in yet another political transition. For the next two and a half centuries, the Mamlūks would rule much of the central Middle East, including Syria and Palestine. Mamlūk sultans offered considerable support for Sufi or- ders and institutions, endowing numerous major residential facilities and architectural complexes. Meanwhile, farther east, the Saljūqids, who had taken Baghdad in 447/1055, had continued their push northward through Syria and into Anatolia, where a branch of the dynasty established its capital at Konya in the center of what is now Turkey. Under Saljūqid patronage, the Mawlawı̄ya order of Rūmı̄ began and prospered. But the turn of the eighth/14th century saw the rise of the early Ottoman dynasty, which quickly gained control of most of Anatolia in its drive to bring down the Byzantine Empire. By the end of this period, the Ottomans were poised to land a decisive blow in the conquest of Constantinople in 857/1453. Still further to the east, the Mongols, led by a grandson of Genghis Khan, sacked Baghdad in 656/1258, effectively putting an end to the caliphate. Sufi orders managed to do more than survive these cataclysmic changes, 8 INTRODUCTION expanding and spreading across the central Middle East and Iran. In South Asia, this was the age of several great sultanates. Under their pa- tronage, Sufi orders took root and thrived in Pakistan and India. From about 803/1400 to the mid-12th/18th century, Sufi institutions from Iberia to Indonesia enjoyed varied fortunes. While it has not been uncommon to characterize this period as one of stagnation or, worse, of simple deterioration across the board in the history of Sufism, recent re- search has begun to reveal more in the way of strength and even growth than was previously acknowledged. This is certainly the case of the Chishtı̄ya in India and beyond, and further research will likely prompt similar conclusions about other orders as well, especially in parts of Africa. Whatever value judgment one chooses to apply to a given order or region, it seems clear that Sufi orders in many regional contexts re- mained influential and vigorous during this “precolonial” period. On the Islamic political front, the major story during this period is that of the rise and fall of the three so-called Gunpowder Empires of early modern times. In the west, the Sunni Ottoman dynasty expanded to control an expanse of North Africa and the Middle East greater than that of the Byzantine Empire at its height. Ottoman sultans, such as Su- layman the Magnificent, were often avid patrons of Sufism, and a num- ber of orders benefited from royal funding. In Iran, the S.afawid dynasty took power in 907/1501, establishing Shı̄‘ı̄ Islam as the state creed. It was under their rule that the most important Shı̄‘ı̄ Sufi orders devel- oped. Around the same time, the Sunnı̄ Mughal dynasty began to take control of parts of Afghanistan, Pakistan, and northern India. Mughal sovereigns like Akbar and his son Shāh Jahān were major patrons of various Sufi orders, especially the Chishtı̄ya. Not long after the S.afaw- ids succumbed to an Afghan invasion in the early 12th/18th century, the Mughal dynasty went into political decline and soon gave way to British power. In general, however, many orders did not fare so well during the peak era of Western colonialization, whether in North Africa, the central Middle East, or South Asia. The health of Sufism’s institutions suffered, not surprisingly, along with other indigenous institutions that lan- guished under colonial regimes. The ability to maintain levels of edu- cation and spiritual formation more typical (as the historical sources would have us believe) of earlier times suffered in some cases from the drive to mobilize Sufis as anticolonialist military forces. INTRODUCTION 9 Today, Sufism remains surprisingly well represented in many differ- ent forms and in many regions. It has survived a variety of forces and changes that have threatened to reduce it to a museum piece. A number of the smaller suborders have fallen by the wayside due to attrition, poverty, and other social and cultural vicissitudes. Even some of the once-larger orders have suffered as a result of political intervention, as in the case of the Mawlawı̄ya after it was officially outlawed by Atatürk early in the 14th/20th century. Sufism has continued to attract a wide variety of attention, from an idealized understanding of its role as a phe- nomenon of spiritual quest that transcends confessional allegiance to outright condemnation of Sufism as the root of all corruption within the realm of things Islamic.6 Not long ago, the educational attaché of a ma- jor Middle Eastern embassy in Washington, D.C., declared in no uncer- tain terms that Sufism was “the ruination of Islam.” Such categorical dismissals of a complex phenomenon whose history is intertwined in so many important ways with the greater history of the Islamic tradition are, unfortunately, not uncommon. They are typically based on either truncated views of Islamic history or just plain lack of information about Sufism—or both. Early modern and contemporary condemna- tions of Sufism as “un-Islamic” have often cited such practices as visi- tation to the tombs of holy persons, miracle-mongering, and various rit- uals and concepts that seem to accord unacceptable mediatorial status to human beings. Enmity to Sufism goes back nearly as far as Sufism itself, and, not sur- prisingly, has a great deal to do with how one defines the phenomenon. Sufism’s earliest critics articulated a wide spectrum of concerns about the social, political, and religious implications of the example of individual ascetics and teachers and of the groups that began to coalesce around them from the first/seventh century on. A widespread criticism of reli- gious authorities arose out of concern that Sufis were setting themselves above and beyond the fundamental requirements of Revealed Law, the Sharı̄‘a. These include not only adherence to the basic meanings of the confession of faith (shahāda), faithful observance of the five daily ritual prayers, fasting during the ninth lunar month of Ramad.ān, almsgiving, and pilgrimage to Mecca (the “Five Pillars”) but also to a host of de- tails regulating acceptable behavior and social relations. Early critics pointed to a dangerous elitism inherent, they believed, in presumptuous Sufi ideas about the possibility of intimate relationships between human 10 INTRODUCTION beings and God. Some authorities took the early ascetics and Sufis to task for their quietistic tendencies, arguing that such a preference for withdrawal from society suggested an unwillingness to accept ethical re- sponsibilities. Nevertheless, one can still find active Sufi groups nearly everywhere across the globe. And although few of the orders manage to maintain the extensive institutions and facilities they once commanded in great num- bers, Sufis still come together to engage in many traditional practices. Moroccan, Turkish, and Egyptian Sufi groups still gather for communal dhikr ceremonies, complete with vocal and instrumental ensembles that execute complex musical settings. In Iran, the major Shı̄‘ı̄ orders attract members from all walks of life, and several Sufi groups are convened by and for Iranian women. Chinese, Central Asian, Pakistani, and In- dian Sufis still celebrate the birthdays of famous holy persons. Shaykhs still offer spiritual guidance, both to groups and to individuals. Seekers still avail themselves of the various spiritual disciplines, including the rigorous forty-day retreat and diverse types of fasting. And Sufi organ- izations continue to appear in various forms in the United States and Canada. All in all, the phenomenon of Sufism is still very much alive. SCOPE AND SOURCES This historical dictionary cuts a wide swath for Sufism, including some figures and concepts that might not find a place under a narrower defi- nition of Sufism. For example, some sources would exclude “fringe” groups such as the Malāmatı̄ya, Qalandarı̄ya, and H.aydarı̄ya and would argue that early ascetics and other “pre-Sufi” figures have no place in the history of Sufism. An overriding concern has been to extend the coverage of an already expansive topic in the hope of suggesting Su- fism’s broader social, political, cultural, and religious contexts. Sufism, as presented here, therefore embraces a host of ritual, institutional, psy- chological, hermeneutical, artistic, literary, ethical, and epistemological features. Primary sources for the history of Sufism cover a broad spec- trum of literary and nontextual material. Two large types of “documentation” provide a wide range of data about the history of Sufism. First and foremost, of course, are written sources represented by a host of genres in both prose and poetry. But in INTRODUCTION 11 addition, a vast array of nontextual material reveals a great deal about Sufism that verbal communication alone cannot convey. Recent schol- arship has made increasingly available for our interpretation a full spec- trum of architectural monuments with an array of functions and forms, and visual arts in numerous media and degrees of sophistication. Here the most important examples of textual and nontextual documentation across this broad spectrum will be described briefly. Beginning as early as the third/ninth century, Sufi authors composed important prose works essential to our knowledge of the history of Su- fism. The variety of texts is considerable. Principal extant prose genres include manuals or compendia (such as those by authors already men- tioned), more theoretical treatises, hagiographical texts, diaries and ac- counts of an autobiographical nature, letters, discourses, prayer books, and pilgrim guides. Manuals or compendia, such as those by the authors mentioned above, provide comprehensive coverage of Sufi thought and practice, often in the context of defending Sufism against its critics among the re- ligious “establishment.” Treatises differ from the manuals in that they tend to offer more focused analyses of concepts and practices, while at- tending less pointedly to questions of Sufism’s relationship to the broader Islamic tradition. Literary genres with affinities to the treatise include letters and discourses. Writing to a wide variety of correspon- dents, Sufi masters from at least the third/ninth century on have dis- cussed a host of practical and theoretical concerns. Some epistles are addressed to individuals who inquired about their personal problems in the spiritual quest, while others are “letters” in a more generic sense and are meant for a wider readership among spiritual seekers. Discourses constitute a sizable body of written material. Typically cast in the form of a shaykh’s responses to queries of members of a Sufi order assem- bled to hear the leader’s teaching, most discourses attributed to a par- ticular master were collected and edited by disciples. These sources pro- vide indispensable data about the lives and times of major Sufi spiritual guides as well as about the orders with which they were affiliated. Another group of literary genres includes a vast corpus of works in the categories of hagiography and history. Authors of several of the great classic manuals developed an already long-standing practice, be- gun in the earliest collections of H.adı̄th, of showcasing the “excel- lences” or virtues (fad.ā’il) of the Prophet and his Companions, the first 12 INTRODUCTION generation of Muslims. They thus inaugurated a Sufi tradition of ac- knowledging the exemplary character of a spiritual elite that subsequent hagiographers elaborated further in the genre called “generations.” These works were, in effect, anthologies of holy lives, typically short on continuous narrative and long on disparate anecdotes and sayings of the various leading Sufis. Before long, other authors began to craft life sto- ries of individual saintly characters, freestanding works that varied in length from a few pages to several hundred. Study of such hagiograph- ical works is still in its relative infancy, and further scholarship prom- ises to expand our knowledge of the history of Sufism considerably. In addition, one can garner a great deal of information, especially on Sufi orders and institutions, from two other genres of “historical” lit- erature. During medieval times, guidebooks for pilgrims assisted spir- itual sojourners with detailed accounts of major sacred sites, along with instructions on how to survive the rigors of negotiating foreign lands and cultures. Pilgrim guides came to include not only the ritual precincts of Mecca and Medina but countless tombs and shrines asso- ciated with famous Sufis as well. Though they tended to be more con- cerned with the logistics of getting to the goal and the etiquette of rit- ual at the site, these sources also provide valuable details on the history of the holy places and their relationship to Sufi orders. Travel accounts penned by such legendary globetrotters as Ibn Jubayr (d. 614/1217) and Ibn Battūta (d. 770/1368) supply supplementary information on Sufi institutions through often detailed descriptions of the inhabitants and practices of Sufi institutions. Over and above such narrative accounts, there is also an immense wealth of devotional material and poetic works. Prayer books and col- lections of exhortatory preaching offer important insights into the spir- itual tone of major Sufi leaders and their constituencies in diverse cul- tural and social settings. Poetic works span a considerable spectrum of genres in the two broad categories of didactic and lyric poetry. Lyric genres—ghazal, qas.ı̄da and rubā‘iyāt—developed as significant vehi- cles for the communication of intense spiritual longing from as early as the second/eighth century. Didactic genres evolved from the sixth/ 12th century on, most notably in Persian and especially in the form of mystical epic and romances in rhyming couplets (mathnawı̄). Possibilities of comparative synchronic studies on the basis of these highly developed literary resources

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