Postwar Europe (Western Europe: France, Germany, UK) PDF

CHP 10: Postwar Europe (western Europe: France, Germany and UK)  Outline: o France, Germany & Great Britian o How the social welfare state was implemented in these countries o European Integration o Eastern European countries after end of cold war (...

CHP 10: Postwar Europe (western Europe: France, Germany and UK)  Outline: o France, Germany & Great Britian o How the social welfare state was implemented in these countries o European Integration o Eastern European countries after end of cold war (Czechoslovakia)  Post war Europe: CHALLENGES: (EUROPE AFTER WW2) o Economic rebuilding of WW2  Industrial capacity was damaged severely after the war  Cities were damaged during the war  Human causalities of war  So economic rebuilding had to account to all the above losses o Confronting USSR (cold war)  Soviets put in place communist governments right at the western borders  Hostile neighbors creating fear of a possibility of another conflict  Soviet soldiers, tanks, planes are stationed in eastern European countries  Had to build the economy and prepare for another possible wat o Preserve the democratic principles within the countries  A challenge to western European countries was fascism – anti-democratic ideology  Between 1919-39 – Great depression (econ crisis) cause instability and loss of order within countries + rise of Hitler rule and Mussolini rule and fascism  End of 1945 (end of war) – it did not look good for western European countries because of economic, social and political challenges o Overall outcome:  Economic Development – they were able to rebuild their industrial capacities in a short period of time (became highly dev industrial nations)  Strengthening of democratic institutions  Creation of modern welfare states  Important dev because western European countries understood that of social problems were not taken care of, people will become fascist or problematic leaders who go against the rule  People’s concerns are addressed in these welfare states – basic needs like healthcare, education and social security is taken care of by the government  Government is subsidizing these needs  Aspects of social welfare state  Still operating as capitalists’ countries but this model helped with the outcome of these countries  US marshal plan  Apart of Truman doctrine  To combat USSR influence  Offer financial aid to western European countries to developed their economies  Imp strategy during the cold war   Provided a significant amount of financial aid to WEU countries so they can rebuild o France: (post-WW2)  Charles De Gaulle, French War hero who fought against the Germans in WW2  He assumes that title of French presidents in 1958 (became president of France)  France had political instability from 1945-58 – due to multiple parties trying to form governments within the countries  At the time he comes into power there were already a couple of issues:  Crisis in Algeria (French colony in Africa) o Independence movement on the rise but France wanted to maintain them as a colony o French politics was divided, some wanted to grant independence others did not o At the end decided to grant independence and leave Algeria  Nuclear weapons: o Wanted France to be a global power through the use and creation of nuclear weapons  France should possess nuclear weapons  o Nuclear power  Economic rebuilding o Able to rebuild industries o France economy begins to do well under his presidency (early phase of it)  Mid 1960s:  Problems of budget deficits and rising living costs  Antiwar protests  Facing these challenges, Charles De Gaulle resigned in 1969  1980s (from later 70s early 80s)  Rise of left-wing parties in politics – socialist ideas  Francois Mitterrand gets elected as president  Important economic changes/policies: o Socialist initiatives: Nationalization of major industries, banks, insurance firms  Iron and steel  Transportation sector (railways)  Banks  All become state owned o Social welfare policies  Increased number of paid holidays  39-hour work week  Problems of growing inflation, unpopularity of austerity measures o As welfare programs kept getting cuts, he started becoming unpopular   In that shift, we see the election of Jacques Chirac, elected as president in 1995  Late 1990s to the early 21st century:  Issue of integration of minorities o Growing number of migrants from Africa  Lived in segregated parts of France  Growing unrest due to this (ethnic and religious minority)  Led to violent protest against the French Govt  Opposing policies of French govt  Growing support for right-wing National Front party of Jean-Marie Le Pen o Anti-migrant and socially conservative policies o Party that is always feared to win – still haven’t won French presidency  Presently named as National Rally led by his daughter Marine Le Pen  Continuing problems of economic unrest o While they have been able to improve econ standing, they have not been able to obtain econ dev o Unemployment, rising costs of living, challenges to change reform labor laws  For e.g. it has become hard to fire people due to the socialist reforms  Now new govts are trying to change laws  Underlying logic, if it becomes easier to hire and fire people, it will be easier to economically develop  Hard to achieve this due to the opposition of the French labor union  Don’t want to change any labor laws o Germany:  It is actually the Federal Republic of Germany formed in 1949 (West Germany)  Was divided into 4 zones between USSR (East), US, UK, FR (West)  East was known as the German Democratic Republic  Divided into equal halves  W. Germany under the rule of Konrad Adenauer (Social democrats) & Christian Democratic Union Party  Often formed coalitions with smaller groups to form governments  “Economic Miracle” in West Germany o The speed Germany was able to rebuild its economy o Similar to what happened in the USA o Doubling of real wages between 1950 & 1965 o Needed additional labor, importation of ‘guest’ workers from Italy, Spain, Greece, Turkey, Yugoslavia (E, S and Turkey)  1960s to mid-1980s: Social Democratic Party in power  Can see a slight change of policies on East Germany by the West  o Will Brandt & Policy of Ostpolitik: reaching out to East Germany o 1972 agreement: ‘good neighborly’ relations between the East and the West  1990s: Reunification of Germany (became one again after being separated)  Positive for the Germans: Reunited with the other Germans) political achievement for the Germans)  Under chancellor Helmut Kohl & Christian Democratic Union (CDU)  There were economic costs of reunification and discontent o West was much better dev then the East (econ dev) o When they were combined, the West had to invest a lot in the East so they would develop  Infrastructure, education etc. o Didn’t risk the reunification process but there was an economic cost that the west was unhappy about  1990s & After: Rise of Neo Nazi groups & attack on immigrants  Had the most liberal policies at first, so they had a large number of immigrants and asylum centers  These centers and immigrants became the main thing to attack by those Neo-Nazis  Germany 21st century political development:  2005: Election of Angela Merkel as Chancellor o Promoted an increased role for Germany in the European Union o Strong leader  New political parties o Right wing Alternative for Germany (AfD)  In most recent years, it has become very influential and were able to form governments  Powerful at the provisional and national level o Green Party (focus on environmentalism)  Left wing party  Has been in coalition, part of the German govt o Great Britain: (what happened to Britain’s empire after 1945)  Was the largest empire in history at the start of WW2  1945 elections: Victory for the labor party and loss for the conservatist  Led by Clement Atlee  Won on the platform of social welfare (due to the effects of war) o Undertook Nationalization programs  Bringing several sectors under the control of the government o Welfare state: National Insurance, National Health Service  Costly (in gen and b/c of WW2)  Challenges for Great Britain:  Decolonization: Economic necessities after WW2 o Countries wanted independence therefore Britain started losing its Empire and it affected their econ development   Lost their resources at the same time they were trying to recover from WW2  Slower economic recovery than other Western European Nations  Internal Strife: N. Ireland & terrorism by the Irish Republic Army o The Catholics wanted autonomy from Britian o The Irish then carried out attacks on the British o Trying to find solution for Northern Ireland troubles  1980s:  Conservative party & ‘Thatcherism’ (Margret Thatcher) o Acted against the labor unions o Adopted economic austerity measures  Cutting back on social welfare policies o Increased military spending and took a hardline against communism  Britian under Thatcher was against Communism and took a hardline against them  B/C they were allies with the USA (Ronald Regan)  Conservatist politics  Mid 1990s:  Labor Party & Tony Blair o On the rise o Tony wasn’t part of the labor party but he understood that they did not know how to adopt the social policies to the same extent o Era of Centrist economic policies  Cut some aspects of social welfare but not drastically (similar to Bill Clintons Policy)  Towards European Unity (European Integration) o Easier path to economic integration  1951: European coal and Steel community  Involved 6 countries o FR, FRG, Italy, Belgium, Netherlands and Luxemburg  To address the issues of coal and steel exports and imports by reducing the tariffs  1957:  EURATOM: European Atomic Energy Community  Sharing Knowledge and resources on atomic science  Same countries as above  Shared their resources  Formed the EEC: European Economic Community: o Rome Treaty: European Economic Community o Creation of a common market/ a common trading zone  1973:  Ireland, Denmark, Great Britian [+ Ireland] joined EEC and it got renamed as European Community (EC)  1986:  Spain, Portugal, Greece joined EC  1991:   Maastricht Treaty: calls for the formation for a single trading block  1994:  European Community (EC) got renamed to the European Union o With a parliament with members from all the countries in the European Union  Parliament passes laws that have to be accepted by the national governments  One of the main issues that caused Britain to exit  If you are a part of it, you have to accept the policies o EVEN migration policies o Will affect the national policies for those in the EU o They agreed to give up some aspects of their sovereignty  Agreed to adopt a common currency for e.g. (Euro)  Not all adopted Euro, Britain maintained its own national policy  It has long left the union following Brexit  Single market as well  2000s  Challenges from addition of Eastern European nations  Issue of Human Rights that the countries from East would feel like their sovereignty is being taken over by the EU Parliament  Eastern Europe after the Cold War: o Turbulent adjustment to free markets and establishing democratic institutions o Breakup of Yugoslavia:  not part of the USSR block of countries but was still a communist country  Had its own government and own leader  marshal Tito  Federation of 6 republics (parts of the Russian empire and AH empire)  The republics are: Serbia, Croatia, Macedonia, Montenegro, Bosnia and Herzegovina  Multiethnic, multi-religious and multilingual  Remained stable under Tito  After Tito’s death, they were asking for self-governments  This was asked by Serbia  Serbian attacks on Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Kosovo (independent part of Yugoslavia) o To have stronger Serbian influence  Ethnic Nationalism in Serbia led to the breakup of Yugoslavia  Served as an example of ethnic nationalism destabilizing the former European nations CHAPTER 11: Postwar Japan:  Outline: (look over when revising) o Japan’s Transformation  Following the Meiji Era  Politics (changes in them)  Economy  Society (social transition)  Postwar Japan: o Japan was placed under US occupation after WW2  Administered by allies (US, UK, USSR)  US had dominance over the governing body therefore they were seen playing a great role  General Douglas MacArthur oversaw the allied occupation of Japan  Political changes were imposed by Japan by the US as an occupying force  Japan’s Transformation: o September 8, 1951: Japan became independent but US occupation continued till 1952 (1945-1952) o Japan and USA signed a defensive alliance allowing stationing of US troops in Japan (still do today)  Some of this also has to do with the cold war calculations (worried another cold war will occur so they are taking this as a defense measure)  Helped the US have a base in East Asia (b/c of the USSR, China and NKR)  Japan’s transformation under US occupation: o Shifting away from Meiji era policies  At that time these policies were strong policies  Became imperial nation with these policies  US believed that some Meiji era policies is what led JP to do what they did in WW2  Changes in Politics and government  Changing how the economy was structured  Changing aspects of education  What they were taught in schools and colleges and the impact it may have had in WW2  Trying to socially engineer or remake the country into something the US occupation wanted it to become  While the goals were ambitious, some goals had to be toned or revised because of the calculations that had to be made due to the Cold War  Cold war shaped some transformation in Japan (cold war influence)  Changes in Politics and government: o New constitution (1947):  New political order on the JP by the US  Based on the western liberal democratic model in order for JP to not take a militaristic track  Balance of power between the Executive, legislative & Judicial Branch  Bicameral Legislature:  2 houses (lower and upper house)   Universal suffrage (voting rights)  Rights given to men and women  Japanese Military: Maintain only self-defense forces  To reduce the power of the military (goal)  Therefore, the military was remade to operate as a self defense force and not an offensive force (cannot launch war but instead to defend the homeland)  To demilitarize JP society  Chapter 1, article 1 of the constitution:  The emperor shall be the symbol of the state and of the unity of the people, deriving his position from the will of the people with whom resides sovereign power o There was uncertainty whether he agreed with all the policies being implemented within US occupied JP o They wanted to remove the Divine aspect of the leaders of JP, so he is there to rule because the people accept him as an emperor due to their will (rules because of the will of the people)  Reduced the status and power of the emperor because the people have the sovereign power  Chapter 2, Article 9:  Aspiring sincere to an international peace based on justice and order; the Japanese people forever renounce war as a sovereign right of the nation rather than a threat or use of force as a means of settling international disputes o Warfare only to defend themselves and not using it as an offensive force o This is following JP expansionist campaign back in the 1930s o Conflicting thoughts on this because of security issues from China and North Korea (should they keep it in the constitution or change it?)  In order to accomplish the aim of the preceding paragraph, land, sea and air forces as well as other war potential will never be maintained. The right of belligerency of the state will not be recognized o After 1950s: (after becoming formally independent)  Stable democracy  2 main parties: (still the main political parties in JP)  Liberal democrats  Socialists  Concerns over how the politics is demonstrated in JP:  Dominance of Liberal democrats in Japanese politics: o They became the main government party  Japan resembled a Unitary state and not a federal state o Can cause some challenges o Places too much power in the central government o Unitary VS Federal State:   Unitary: one government (central govt)  In Tokyo JP (the capital)  Power is concentrated in this one government  Federal: every prefecture in JP has their own government  Central govt exists but power is shared with the local government as well (greater autonomy)  Economy Changes in Japan: o Efforts were made to break up Zaibatsu’s (large business conglomerates, same company own different companies in different sectors)  Banking, manufacturing etc.  Meant that the economy was in the hand of a handful of business family and they can change the policies  Wanted to remove them to increase competition and diminish the Zaibatsu power on politics o This led to the formation of Kairetsu (interlocking arrangements)  Not from the same company but are informally interlinked  Can get better deals (like loans) from their original company’s bank for example  Helped formed informal alliances between companies and diminished Zaibatsu’s power o Cold War influences: Limited the breakup of Zaibatsu’s  Economic insecurity may allow USSR to enter JP so the US did not pursue the first goal with much determination and allowed the Zaibatsu to operate in a informal power as long as it helped the JP economy  Seen as risky to go against the Zaibatsu’s o Land Reforms  More successful  After being redistributed from the wealthy, they had more land-owning farmers  Converting tenants into land-owning farmers (don’t live there now but own the land) o Japan’s Economic Miracle: (1945-1990s)  1950s: Japan’s GDP was one third of Britain or France (who were all severely damaged by WW2- JP was most affected)  1980: Japan’s GDP was greater than combined GDP of Britain and France (who are two highly dev countries – a miracle)  Higher quality of life than other industrialized western nations o Explanation for econ miracle:  Cultural factors:  JP was able to achieve this change due to their culture: o Importance given to education (to complete it)  They had a constant supply of an educated labor force o Preference of frugality and saving (living a simple life)   Govt was able to borrow from their own banks and improve infrastructure instead from borrowing from others o Less expenditure on govt entitlement programs:  People began looking after their own elderly so the govt won’t spend much on the welfare  Use that money for other things  Expenditure of the govt on social welfare was less and therefore used for industrial development  Non-cultural factors:  US security umbrella  lower defense expenditure o Their security needs are taken care of by the US o Did not have a high military budget so the money could be used to increase the economic output  Good management – labor Relations o Did not face labor problems (like strikes in EU) o Good ties between the company management and the workers working in the company o Output was not impacted as there were no labor strikes  Government support for business interests: o JP govt has played a great rule in helping/ subsidizing the JP industries o 1990s:  Slowing down of JP’s economy (even if they are still one of the largest economies but they were not able to match their output in the earlier periods)  This was due to the rising value of the JP Yen  decrease in exports because the Yen was becoming more expensive and people did not want to use a lot of money to purchase them  There was also competition for them in the car industry for example that impacted their exports (people want models from other countries)  Changing work culture:  Decreasing job security  With the slow down, the jobs were not secure anymore (causing social fears among the people who were worried about losing their source of income)  Increasing demands for deregulation of the economy  Asking the government to be less involved in the economy  To increase competition and innovation within the economy  Ongoing social issues: o Emphasis on conformity in JP culture  Had positive impact on the economy (relation between the management and the laborer)  They had to accept certain standards of behavior  Importance of loyalty to the community (doing what’s expected of you)   Leads to positive output but also a lot of pressure to conform (or agree to things you do not agree with)  Emphasis on work ethic and hard work  School, college and work place  Rebelling against culture and conformity  Done by the youth who are going against social norms o Japan’s role in WW2:  They were an occupying force and a highly militarized society  Some of JP’s actions as still seen as unresolved issue  Like the use of Korean women as ‘comfort women’ o Still an issue between JP and SKR (personal issue for SKR who had to relocate in JP and stay there – trying to seek recognition and apology from the government)  Japan’s policies during conquest and administration  How they treated the other Asian countries o China, SEA (during the occupation) o A lot of resentment about their policies  Treatment of minorities in JP  Some minority groups in Japan get treated as outcasts in society  Due to the jobs they did (seen as separate from the JP people)  How to deal with the indigenous communities of JP o Issue with giving them recognition and offering them policies for integration in JP society o Women in Japanese Society:  Significant participation in labor force but less representation in higher levels o Demographic crisis:  Ageing population, less birth rates  Need a large percentage of a working age population as they will:  Pay taxes  Consume products and service  Work in jobs o These will create revenue for the government  The ageing population is causing social and economic problems o They are not paying taxes, do not work and do not buy houses so the government is not getting revenue  The government revenue is therefore becoming lower so they are trying to reverse this issue by allowing immigration o However, JP has strict immigration policies therefore there have been demand to allow greater immigration into the countries so there is a balance between old and young age  (restrictive immigration policies)  Declining fertility: less women as interested in having kids (they need a high fertility rate in order to replace the working generation)  JP has a low fertility rate  Recap: Japan’s transformation after 1945 o Politics and government o Economy (their economic miracle) o Social issues CHP 12: China under Communism:  Postwar China: o China under communist rule:  Mao Tse-tung (Mao Zedong)  Deng Xiaoping (his successor)  Radical communism (under Mao) to pragmatic communism (under Deng)  Pragmatic = more practical policies/ adaptations  China began adopting capitalism after shift to pragmatic communism  China under Mao: (after WW2) o 1949: Chinese communist party wins the civil war against the Guomindang and forms the government  They govern mainland China and Kai Shek moves to Taiwan and forms a government there o After 1949: Focus on economic development o New Democracy policy (used a model used by Lenin after the Bolshevik revolution)  The new economic policy (private ownership state owned)  private ownership in industrial and commercial sector  Redistribution of land but no collectivization of land  They would give the land to the farmers but there were no collective lands like in the Soviet Union (collecting land to make one big plot) o Change of plans in 1955: Move towards land collectivization  Lumping together small lots of land to create a bigger land  E.g. lumping the land owned by farmers from the same village into one big one, they work on it now but they don’t own it as it belongs to the whole village  This was all part of a bigger plan towards industrialization o 1958: The great leap forward:  He wanted to enhance the progress (speed things up, rapid industrialization) [goal]  Collective farms were combined to form peoples Communes  Combine already collectivized lands into bigger lands  Lands of several villages combined into one to increase farm output (the plan)  There will also be a labor surplus that will be used in factories  There were however no incentives therefore there was not much output o Less food output  led to starvation and high number of deaths in rural areas  Other party leaders saw this not working and was affecting the economy and people’s lives  Mao received opposition for this plan as they believed it will lead to the collapse of the country  Growing challenge to Maro internally from: Liu Shaoqi & Deng Xiaoping o 1966-76: great proletarian cultural revolution (cultured revolution)  Mao’s campaign to silence the opposition from within the party  As they were a one-party state, he had to get rid of this opposition  Mao’s efforts to silence criticism:   “Cleanse Chinese society” – purify the society from those opposing him, purify the country from the counterrevolutionary (shame them public)  “Uninterrupted revolution” o Anyone found opposing him was found guilty as they were not being loyal to the Marxist ideologies (ideological purity)  Make some type of cult worship: Whatever Mao said was correct and the people had to follow o He did not want anyone to stop him  This period brough about chaos and instability instead of peace and stability  Children were complaining about their parents and teachers  Mao’s opponents wanted to focus on nation building  Rather than engaging in the uninterrupted revolution  China under Deng o After Mao: Deng Xiaoping (his opposer) became Chinas leader  This is following Mao’s death and a long period of time with no leader o He focused on “four modernizations”  Economic growth (main goal of the party)  Industry (1st modernization)  Agriculture  Develop technology  National defense (develop it)  In a way, China was trying to catch up with industrialization and growth after Mao’s death (isolated for a very long time  Long overdue modernization, especially after the collapse of the Ching in 1911  From this phase onwards, we can see era of economic development in China (due to pragmatic communism)  ‘’Focus on creating wealth for the people” o Seen as okay now as it wasn’t seen before  Reforms under Deng Xiaoping o Economy in post-Mao period:  Importance of economic performance over ideology  Reduction of government control over the industries (less control, individuals control on the rise)  Apo rival of profit-driven goals (any company can now generate profit now)  Was seen as anti-Marxist idea before (was frowned upon)  Emergence of a small private sector (that grew gradually)  Entry of foreign capital/ investments in China (was not possible before) o Post-Mao Agricultural reforms:  Rural responsibility System: Leading of land by collectives  Ideas was not abandoned but the villages can now lease the lands for people who wanted it (rent it out)  Those who lease it have to pay the rent and whatever is made from it by the company can be kept by the people renting it out  This gradually led to the increase in the farm outputs   Sideline industries: fish farming, furniture making (people were allowed to work in these jobs (in cottage industries/ side businesses) as they may not work on the farms anymore  A way to get extra income (because profit is now allowed)  There was therefore extra revenue coming from the rural areas of China now  Improvement in rural economies, but also increased inequality in rural areas  Some families may do better than others (have large families or land meaning they can have more income than others) o Evaluating Four Modernizations:  They no doubt had an era of rapid economic growth  Due to industrial exports (became the factory of the world)  Costs of economic growth:  Poor working conditions in factories (human cost)  Rural unrest (lack of land, migration to urban areas) o People moving to urban areas because of slow development in rural areas (they were doing much better)  They had more incomes and better lives  This is why they had internal migration o Rural  Urban o This could also be connected to the lack of land (so people moved to urban areas due to lack of land and opportunities)  Environmental costs: o Using a lot of fossil fuels (especially coal) to generate energy o Polluting the environment (air and land and water)  China under Deng Xiaoping: o Issue of political freedom:  They did not have political reforms that has a democratic set up  This lead to an issue in the 1980s as people began to engage with the outside world  They realized the difference between their freedom and other countries freedom when they went abroad and came back o 1989: Tiananmen Square Protests:  Protested over a period of several days  Consisted of the urban population  People were demanding for increase in political reforms  Was not popular in rural areas  This could be due to the changes in cultural changes  One faction was with their idea and the other was against it  Conflict on how to address the issue  The hardline faction won and they sent the army to the protest o Many died during this conflict o After 1989 Tiananmen Square Protest:  More political control by the CCP  They understood that the urban population had to be satisfied as they were the ones who started the protest  Create a more comfortable life for them   Focus on rapid economic growth and social stability  Promoting consumer culture  All of these were taken as steps to counter the demand for more political people  As people are content with their economic needs and have good stability  they might not protest for political reforms o Have a steady income and spend it on consumer needs  This was the idea they were following  Keep people content and give them capital they could spend to not begin protests  They also tried to curb the western influences (seen as the second wall of China)  Heavily influenced and controlled the media  Created their own app, software, technology  Strong censorship of the internet  Focus on Chinese nationalism based on China’s Past:  Government trying to spread ideas of nationalism by using Chinas past  To create a sense of pride  CCP seen as the representative of the Chinese nation o Anything against it was seen as opposition  Official support for Confucianism:  The idea was seen as feudal and anti-Marxists o Mao was also against it o “Old order”, Marxism was the “new order”  Believed that Confucianism helped maintain stability so they began supporting some interpretations of Confucianism o Neo-Confucianism  China in 2000s o Leaders Hu Jintao and Xi Jinping o Awareness of problems in Chinas countryside:  Both leaders faced the problems of uneven economic growth (Urban VS Rural)  They knew if they do not fix the issue, there would be instability across the nation o Corruption problems  They are a one-party state but there is an increase in corruption within governments  Party officials may misuse their power for economic gains  Could lead to dissatisfaction with the government  Xi Jinping: o One Belt One Road initiative/ Policy (2014-2015)  Grand plan by the government to finance infrastructure projects outside of China  Roads, railways, ports  to connect China was Africa, Europe and Asia  Helps them grow their economy in a way (based on the model fo the silk road)   Multiple networks that will help connect China with the outside world  Seen as a way for China to control over the other countries  An ongoing concern  If they take a loan and they can’t pay it, China will control the port o Assertive role for China on global stage:  Trying to take over Taiwan as they see it as a part of China due to history between them  Chinese society under communism: o “Mass Organizations”  Act as a link between the people and the party  So, the party knows about the people’s problems to be able to form policies  They represented workers, peasants, religious groups and artists  The party will then contact with the mass organization and have a dialogue with them to understand the peoples problem  Still a one-party rule  Abuses of power and corruption could still occur by the party (there is no challenger against the party itself)  Risks of bypassing of party by individuals (e.g. Mao’s policies)  Mao was able to just ask his party and do whatever he wanted to do o Chinese society in Flux: Mao’s Period: (popular in Mao’s period)  Removal of old values, old attitudes, old customs  Seen as a part of the feudal history of China  The Marxists revolution was supposed to start everything with new ideas  So, after 1949, the Chinese government started advocating to end old customs (against Confucianism)  Changes in the traditional family system but still maintain patriarchy o Chinese society in Flux: Post-Mao’s Period: (under Deng Xiaoping)  A return to previous norms of family organizations  Differences in the status of women in urban and rural areas  Changes were seen mostly in the Urban parts of China  Reduced safety net for senior citizens, especially in rural areas  Lifestyle Changes:  Mostly in the Urban areas o Increase in material consumption and material accumulation (owning stuff – homes, cars, technology)  Growing income inequalities between the urban and rural areas  Increasing rootlessness among young population of China  As they move to urban areas, their social connections become weaker  They do not feel a sense of connection  Growing popularity of organized religions  Recap: o China after 1949  Dev under Mao Zedong and Deng Xiaoping  Shift from radical communism to pragmatic communism CHP 13: Independent states of South and Southeast Asia (this is only south asia)  Outline: o End of imperial rule in British India o Developments in independent India o Developments in independent Pakistan  Final years of British rule in India o Achieved independence in 1947 o India achieved independence way quicker than other colonies  This set the stage for other decolonization movements that will occur in 1950s-60s o Impact of WW2 (plays a big role):  India participated in WW2 (as a British colony, didn’t enter willingly)  There was opposition from Indian nationalists’ leaders who opposed participation in the conflict  Set the stage for devotiations o Indian support was connected to the promise of independence o However, Britain did not want to leave India in WW2 o War between Indian nationalists and colonizers  Rising demand for Indians independence  Led to instability and unrest within India  Would support the war efforts but wanted to male decisions on how they participated in the war  British still controlled them and ignored the interests  After a change of leaders in Britain (change in govt)  Led by labor party in 1945  They were sympathetic to the demand of the Indians  They agree to withdraw from India due to the rising demand as well as the state of Britain’s economy   Damages to the British economy in WW2  Their economic situation did not permit them to hold onto the empire o Britain decided then to end colonial rule (especially due to demand and effect on the economy) o Demand for Pakistan by Indian Muslims  Indian Muslims made up a significant minority of the population  They wanted a separate state that would safeguard their rights  Concerned that their rights would be affected in a Hindu India  so they began demanding a separate state  South Asia: o 1947: End of British Rule & partition of British India  Colony became:  India   Pakistan (East Pakistan (Now Bangladesh in 1971) & West Pakistan (now Pakistan)  India since Independence: o One political development is:  India national congress  Body formed in 1885  Most influential organization fighting for Indian independence  Organization for nationalists’ movements  Remained dominant pan-Indian political party till the 1990s (had significant impact in India for a long time) o Their dominance has reduced significantly now but they still exist  They were able to form governments in many states and in the central level as well  India’s first PM: Jawaharlal Nehru (1947-64) was a member of this organization  India under Nehru: o Was an underdeveloped country (with big popu and a lot of land) o So the new govt decided to focus on development o Nehru therefore adopted democratic Socialism  Influenced by British socialism (not soviet socialism)  British model of socialism  Socialist model developed like the Western styles  State controlled the major industries  There was significant private ownership of agricultural land (so private ownership was allowed unlike the USSR and China)  Private enterprise existed but under government regulations (in other kind of industries)  They could exist as privately owned but there was a significant amount of government regulations  Implementation of Five-year economic plan (this was borrowed from USSR economic policies – so some ideas came from USSR) o Economic developments under Nehru:  India undertook major industrialization and infrastructure projects  Important project he undertook: Green revolution:  Didn’t have enough food to feed the population  So they developed the green revolution to focus on developing irrigation facilities, usage of fertilizers which all made a huge difference in the creation of food supplies  This also helped them grow their food supply and export food to other countries  Introduced of disease-resistant crops (key aspect)  Increase in food output (key aspect)  BUT this produced rural inequality o Rural economy faced inequality o There was unequal development in the rural economy  o Those with larger farms did better than people with smaller farms  Nehru’s Foreign policy: o Based on 2 major ideas  Anticolonialism: Support for independence movements in Asia and Africa  This is due to them achieving independence much quicker than other colonies (who achieved independence in the 50s and 60s)  Supported these movements through the UN  Neutrality in the cold war (how to deal with it): Non-aligned movement  Nehru and leaders from other countries (Egypt, Indonesia, Yugoslavia) adopted a policy of neutrality  Not belonging to either camp and maintaining an independent foreign policy of foreign affairs  Known as NAM  Lost influence when sides began taking sides during the war (towards the end of the 1960s) – China for example  After Nehru, his daughter Indira Ghandi o Was PM twice (1966-77) & (1980-84) o Her government was a continuation to Nehru’s policy o Continued the policies of democratic socialism o Extended some of his policies as well  Nationalized many banks and airlines for example o Some aspects of her government were democratic however  Suspended democracy and imposed emergency rule (1975-77) for her own political gain  What caused her to lose the 1977 elections o Assassinated in 1984 for her actions towards Sikh nationalists demanding a separate nation  Done by her body guards  Rajiv Ghandi: o Succeeded his mother in 1984-89 o Increased the role of private enterprise o His govt faced troubled in the 1980s when they were accused for taking bribes in arms purchases o This led to his defeat in the next elections o Assassinated by Tamil militants from Sri Lanka in 1991 when he supported the Sri Lankan governments against the Tamil militants  This was when he was in the elections as well (like his mother)  India in the 1990s: o Economic liberalization: Shift away from socialists’ policies o Period of increased economic growth in India o Political change:  Rise of Hindu nationalism: Electoral victories for the Bhartiya Janata party (BJP)  Challenged the congress  Focused on the ideologies of Hindu nationalism   Their rise marks erosion of the dominant role of the Indian national congress in the 2000  They were not able to win enough seats to form a government on its own so they had to form alliances (coalitions) with other parties o So, they became less powerful now while the BJP became the most powerful national political party in India  Challenges: o Managing Diversity  Linguistics (22 official languages and around 100 unofficial ones)  Ethnic: rise of separatist movements  In order to become separate countries  One of these movements is what led to the deaths of the past PMs  Religious issue: Protections of minorities (Sikhs, Muslims and Christians)  Castes (used to identify a form of social hierarchy): protection of lower caste groups from discrimination from higher caste groups  Like access to resources  Social discrimination o Were widely practiced even though they were not allowed o Promoting gender equality:  Can in some way be related to the points above o Relations with Pakistan  Security issue  Kashmir Issue: 3 wars (1947, 1965, 1971)  Still unresolved issue so there is potential for future conflict on who owns Kashmir  Pakistan since Independence: o India was the inheritor of British India o Pakistan was the seceding ‘new’ state:  23% of undivided India’s territory  18% of undivided Indias population  Creation of institutions and capital  They had to build everything because they were the new state that came out of British India  This was a challenge for them to do within a short period of time o Pakistan started with an industrial deficit:  Only 10% of industries of undivided India were in Pakistan (most were in India) o Politics: Unstable democratic governments:  Military interventions in politics (1958-71, 1977-88, 1999-2008)  Started as a democratic nation but at certain points the governments were overtaken by the military (military coup)  Had a lot of military rules occur o Challenges:  Managing diversity:  Linguistic diversity [Urdu, Punjabi, Sindhi, Baluchi, Pashto, Bengali] o This was due to different provinces  o Worried that their own regional language is being dominated by Urdu or Punjabi (seen as the language of the political elites) o Led to movements of linguistic nationalism  Fear that their language is being discriminated against  Led to the independent movement of East Pakistan (1971) -> Bangladesh was formed o Due to the Bengali population as they felt that their language was being discriminated against so they formed their own country  Ethnic diversity:  Also led to challenges and ethnic separatism  Especially in Baluchistan o Complicated case because they have several natural resources so they felt like they were not getting revenues from these natural resources o So it was ethnic nationalism combined with economic deprivation (caused by the Pakistani government who were taking the resources and not sharing the revenues  Religious:  Protection of minorities (Hindus, Christians, and non-Sunni Muslims (Ahmadi and Shia)  Pakistan’s Security:  On the western border: Pakistan-Afghanistan relations o Border conflicts, didn’t become anything major  India-Pakistan conflicts: o Led to 4 wars between them o They are now both nuclear armed countries (dangerous)  Can affect the world  Post 9/11: Pakistan’s role in US-led war on terror o Joined alliance with US o Put paisan in a difficult position  They formed an alliance but the public do not have a lot of support for the alliance  Led to a lot of unrest from the public  Recap: o South Asia since 1947  Political development in both countries  Political, Economic and Social challenges these countries face CHP 13: Independent states of Southeast Asia (this is only southeast Asia) At the time, Burma was connected with south Asian countries (as well as Myanmar) The countries that lie between the Indian and pacific Most of them were under imperial rule except for Thailan o Independence in SEA: o Year of independence:  Philippines – 1946 (From the USA)  They still has a lot of self-rule being practiced by the time they got independence  Burma (Myanmar) – 1948 (from Britain)  Dutch East Indies (Indonesia) – 1949 (from the Netherlands)  Vietnam – 1954 (from France)  Malaya (Malaysia) – 1957 (from Britain) o Most of these countries were under Japanese rule during WW2 o After 1945, some colonizers grated immediate independence  Postcolonial SEA: o In the initial era of independence, several SEA nations adopted democratic practices o Later (1950s-60s +) most nations shifter to military rule or one-party autocratic regimes o They became more authoritarian because:  Lack of economic development  When dev did not happen, there was social and political unrest (promises were not kept so the people rose against the rule)  This unrest allowed the military to take over or for one party to win elections  Presence of ethnic, linguistic and religious diversity  Local people want to preserve their diversity o They want to become independent  Led to ethno-nationalist movements (to preserve the unity and to protect the country’s sovereignty)  Impact of the cold war  They pick one country they want to support affecting the country  Case Study: Indonesia: o Made up of multiple small islands o They are located in the Indian ocean o Historically, what is now Indonesia was never part of any single political entity o It was only under Dutch colonial rule where they were brought into one big political entity (it was basically created artificially by the Dutch, Indonesia never existed till the Dutch arrived) o Population: 281 million  4th largest in the world  Most populous Muslim nation o Diversity:  300+ ethnic groups/ communities  Languages: Bahasa Indonesian, English, Dutch and 700 local languages o Geography:  Chain of thousands of islands  Independent Indonesia: o Indonesia became independent in 1949 (earliest group of countries to achieve indep)   Little experience among Indonesians in self-government under Dutch rule (unlike other countries since the Dutch did not give them chances to self- rule)  Other countries were able to experience self-governments before gaining independence (like India and the Philippines) o 1949-1955:  There was no single dominant political party that could unite the country  As a consequence, the country went into a period of political stability as soon as they gained independence (since they do not have a stable government and its constantly changing)  This led to a rise in economic problems o Under Sukarno (first leader following the independence)  Ruled till the 1960s  He was already a well-known figure in the country due to his role in the Indonesian independence movement  He was a prominent nationalist leader  Key author of Panca Sila (Five principles) in Indonesia constitution  Freedom of religion for example  To help country learn how to manage its internal affairs and how to deal with foreign policy  1957: Sukarno formed an advisory council  First sign of autocratic rule]  Picked by him  Consisted of functional and political units  Ruling the country through the council (bypassing democratic norms) o The people were not against it and supported it due to the unrest they were facing  Principle of “guided democracy’ – his was of ruling  The people need to be guided for a certain period of time before following democratic policies  He began to centralize all power to himself and his advisory council (while calling it a guided democracy model)  Indonesia played an important role in international affairs  Indonesia emerged as a champion of newly formed nations o Taking a firm anti-colonial stance in his foreign policy  April 1955: Bandung Conference (Non-aligned movement) o Indonesia, India and Egypt (in the initial phase)  In the late 1950s, initial approval turns into disapproval:  People started turning against him due to no drastic change in the economy  And also due to dictatorial decision making by Sukarno  Confrontation with Malaysia (1963-66)  Sukarno opposed creation of Malaysia  Said they were apart of Indonesia at some point in time  He portrayed the confrontation as a struggle between newly emerging forces against old established forces  o Trying to portray his actions as a counter to such colonial plans  His opposition was not supported by other Asian countries o Sukarno was opposed by many Asian countries o It was not an anti-colonial struggle but his own desire to extend the borders of Indonesia  Facing internal opposition and external opposition  Turn towards Communism:  Sukarno sought support from the Soviet Union o Soviet support to counter Chinas influence in Indonesia  This shows a connection between domestic politics and cold war politics  But the communist party of Indonesia (PKI) maintained alliance with China (even though their own government was turning more to the Soviet Union)  End of Sukarno era:  PKI launched a coup in 1965 against the Sukarno government o Wanted to overturn the government  The coup does not succeed due to General Suharto countering the coup attempt  The government then begins massacre of communists and Chinese- origin peoples o They attacked people from Chinese origin because the PKI was supporting CCP  Sukarno was gradually removed from power by 1967 (seen as a failed leader)  General Suharto replaced Sukarno o Under Suharto (Suharto era)  From 1967-98 Indonesia was ruled by Suharto  The country was governed in a more autocratic manner than under Sukarno’s rule  One of his first actions was the revival of the 1955 parliament  The parliament was suspended by Sukarno  He’s trying to revive democratic practices in Indonesia  In reality he began to control the government o Communist party was not permitted o Increased representation of military in politics (since he was general)  “New order”: formed by Suharto and his allies  We do not see a transition to democratic practices following this new order  Major challenge: Stimulate economic recovery  Renegotiation of loan payments (that they already took)  Cash inflow from 1973 OPEC crisis o They were an oil producing country (so this helped with their economic challenges)  US and Japanese aid (pointing at a change in cold war alliance  leaning more towards AU, USA and JP)   Suharto Foreign Policy:  Ending of Malaysian confrontation  1967: Formation of pro-western ASEAN o Union with a more pro-western outlook  Closer relations with US, Britain, Japan and Australia  Elections:  Country has controlled elections  They wanted to maintain democratic practices so they had them  Even though parties competed, only one won due to the control of the elections  There were also severe restrictions on parties EXCEPT for the government party who always won the elections o Restrictions on political parties & victories for government organized parties  1980s: Growing Dissent over Suharto’s policies  In the 1970s they were okay with them due to less economic problems  But in the 1980s that all changed due to political policies  Protests over politicizing the military  Protests over not permitting dissent  Disillusionment over widespread corruption o Particularly in the oil sector o The government wanted to control the oil sector  He still continued to stay in power due to the support given to the government by the military (the military was on his side)  1990s – end of Suharto rule  1997-98: Currency and economic crisis o It was a global economic problem o Large public protests against Suharto o These protests led to the refusal of the Indonesian military in supporting Suharto  1998: Suharto stepped down o Developments after Suharto  Democratic transition of power since 2001  Fair elections  Democratic transitions of power after each election  They have become a stable democratic nation in SEA  Current trends in SEA: o A story of mixed economic successes  Singapore, Indonesia, Malaysia  These counties after the late 1980s faced great econ growth o Different types of regimes:  Varying from democratic regimes (Indonesia and Malaysia) to military dictatorships (like Myanmar)  Regional Integration: o ASEAN: Association of Southeast Asian countries o 1967: came into being with these countries:   Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Singapore and the Philippines  Can be seen as a cold war construct cause all these countries had a pro west alignment  Didn’t become effective with pushing political and economic unity o Focused on social and economic issues o Current membership includes: Vietnam, Laos, Brunei, Myanmar and Cambodia o Facing challenges to maintain their unity  Due to how to deal with contemporary issues that the nation is facing  Like how to deal with China  They all have different ties (Some close some distant)  How to have a united policy with China  Due to internal problems as well  For example: How to deal with Myanmar (as they are isolated on the global sphere with a military dictatorship)  Recap: o Independent states of SEA:  Challenges of postcolonial era  Case study of Indonesia  Regional Integration: ASEAN CHP 14: Emerging Africa  Outline: o Policies of imperial governments after WW2 o Emergence of nationalism in African colonies o Challenges facing African nations after independence o Cases of South Africa and Nigeria  The continent was colonized very rapidly following the key event of the berlin conference in 1885 o By 1900, most of the continent was colonized by European countries o They were colonized later than Asian countries o By the 20th most were colonized except for Liberia and Ethiopia  Colonial Africa in the aftermath of WW2 o Views of imperial governments  High cost of war  difficulty of maintaining direct rule (following WW2)  Eu economies were damaged after WW2 so they couldn’t keep their colonies  They became weak and started considering opening the colonies as they were really high cost to own (a high-cost venture)  High cost of rebuilding European countries  need to retain colonies  They still wanted to own the colonies as they needed the cheap resources and revenue  This will be used to rebuild their colonies o Contrasting the first point  Reluctant decision to grant Africa self-government (not independence)  So they were still colonies but without direct rule from EU countries (they reduced the costs of colonies by reducing the costs of administration)  Local people governed the government (African administrators)  Self-governing capacity o In British and French colonies:  Increased local representations in legislative and executive councils  Prepared them for independence o In Portuguese and Belgian colonies:  They did not follow such approaches  Little effort to prepare local popu for independence  Colonial Africa: o Colonial Legacy:  Education, medical care, transportation  Certain policies led to improvements in some aspects of society  Schools and colleges were established (limited form of public education) o Wanted to train Africans to assist in colonial administration (so they wanted the local people to join the imperial government by getting educated)  Middle and lower positions   Medical care improved  received vaccinations and established hospitals  Roads and railway networks were built to help improve the colonial economy o to also aid in the movement of the military across the colony  Unequal distribution of benefits:  Did not reach colonial people in a uniform fashion  Found mostly in the urban areas and not the rural areas  Only benefitted some of the colonial society and not the large number  therefore the unequal distribution of benefits  Lack of industrial development in European colonies  Even though they were administered by industrial nations, the transfer of industrial knowledge did not happen within the colonies o Except in South Africa and Algeria (there was a low level of industrialization at the time of independence) o This was due to the large number of EU settlers living there o In S. Africa it was the British and Dutch, In Algeria it was the French there in large numbers o Colonial economy: Export of cash crops  Examples: peanuts, cotton (Kenya), coffee (Egypt), palm oil  They were using cash crops basically  commercial farming where the main purpose is to cultivate items that could be exported to the global markets  Not to feed the local population but a way to earn revenues  Some of the colonies became good at growing some of these cash crops  Benefited a few Africans who were connected to the commercial farming sector  it did not yield much benefits for others  Landless Africans were made to work on plantations  Their lands were taken from them  It was the EU plantation owners who benefitted from the plantations  Their labor was the people who owned the land (so they take the land and force the people who previously owned it to work on it)  Profits from export of cash crops were sent to EU  The plantation owners and EU capitalists benefitted  Capitalists invested in those plantations  Through this context we can see the rise of nationalism within the colonies  Rise of nationalism: o Mainly led by the western educated class (Africans who were exposed to western education) o Or those who belonged to the educated class o Initial focus: Improving the colonies and not independence  Improving economic conditions and calling for limited political reforms (and not complete independence) o This changed after WW2: demand for independence increased (following independence occurring in Asia) o Uhuru: Swahili term for freedom o Gold Coast (Ghana): (west)  Earliest colony to demand independence   Kwame Nkrumah formed the convention peoples party (as the forefront for the independence movement)  Nkrumah was western educated in the gold coast and then went to the USA for his university life  He was a part of the UGCC and then he formed the CCP which was his party  He was appointed the first PM of the gold coast and then the president of Ghana  He started off striving for democracy (how he became a leader) but then slowly became a dictator o Called himself the president for life o One party state o Passed some dictator policies  Passed the preventive detention act  was kind of abusive  Tried to assassinate him twice o Once done by a policeman when he was going to his office o Once by a bomb hidden in a bouquet of flowers that was about to be presented to him  After being ousted in a coup  he was in Vietnam then China and finally Guinea (he couldn’t go back to Ghana) o He gave Guinea 10 million when Ghana was undergoing a crisis o Possibly one of the reasons the coup went on o Because he was seen doing more for other countries but not Ghana  He had socialist tendencies (he was more sympathetic to the Soviet Union during the cold war) o The CIA played an important role in the coup (impact of cold war in African politics) o Kenya: (east)  Jomo Kenyatta founded Kenya African National Union (to call for independence) o Nationalist movement were mainly led by urban based activist:  Lawyers, journalists, school teachers, union labor leaders  Some exceptions: E.G. Mau Mau rebellion in rural Kenya  Mau Mau rebels used violent tactics and faced violent reprisals from colonial government  They were going against the land policies of the colonial governments (their lands were taking forcibly by the plantation workers and the colonial government)  They killed and attacked them leading to a violent response from the colonial government  Towards independence: (era of independence) o Between mid-1950s and mid-1970s o Era of decolonization in Africa o Managing diversity:  National boundaries based on colonial policies   The colonies were already seen as artificially created countries already  They were not based on pre-existing boundaries  These boundaries divided people who were from similar backgrounds AND at the same time brought people who were from different backgrounds together o These countries in many ways caused issues with managing diversity o Forging African Unity:  Through Pan-Africanism  that there is something common between all African people  Therefore, all Africans should unite and help each other  This is why Nkrumah was helping Guinea (his ideology in a way) o We are all Africans so we have to help each other  There were other pan movements like Pan-Arabism  Idea of a distinctive “African Personality”  This was built on the idea of “negritude” (blackness)  Countering inferiority towards blackness  Having pride in black culture o Cultural renaissance  Goal: to find a shared destiny of all African peoples  Main outcome: Formation of the African Union (1963) [OAU]  Later became the African Union (2001) o Challenges:  Neocolonialism:  Term used in the 2nd half of the 20th century in regards to African countries (and some Asian countries)  Political independence, economic dependence  Do they have the industries to compete in the global markets, do they have the finances, can they control the price of their exports o The rate is not determined by African countries but in the countries of the colonizers (so no economic independence) o Cash crop economies  fluctuations of prices on international markets  Do they have access to tech? o They have to borrow from other countries o High cost of importing tech and western goods  Do they have human resources? o They do not have the required skills and personal  They are dependent on the west for their development so they are at a disadvantage  Cold war influences (political challenges)  The role of the cold war in the colonization of Africa  They are trying to extend their influence to other countries basically  Both the US and USSR began interfering in the domestic politics of these colonized countries o US-supported overthrow of Patrice Lumumba in Congo   Worked with Congolese opponents to take him down o The soviets supported anti-govt movements in Angola and Ethiopia  Border disputes between nations: o External conflicts  Separatist movements within nation o Internal conflicts  Rising population:  There was decline in mortality rates due to improved health infrastructure  Increased birth rate  These combined helped increase the population  Positive development as long as certain conditions are met  Creates a need for high rates of economic growth  Rising urbanization (created by rising population) o Id there is an inc in popu and there are no inc in rural areas, people move to urban areas for better opportunities o This will lead to a series of connected problems  Housing  Urban planning  A youthful population  demographic dividend (can be + or -) o Seen as a positive thing because the young population can work o Leads to large amounts of economic growth o Big issues is a question mark o Only a positive thing if there are economic opportunities o If they do not then it will be a problem because a lot of people would be jobless for example  This can impact the national politics o Different approaches to economic independence:  Western style capitalism:  Jomo Kenyatta (Kenya), Mobutu sese-seko (DRC – Congo)  African socialism:  Kwame Nkrumah (Ghana), Julius Nyerere (Tanzania)  Both followed a socialist path and a one party state to help with these socialists policies  Post WW2 Africa: (CASE STUDIES) o South Africa:  A British colony  White minority rule (government)  Govt formed by white minorities  They had two groups o British settlers o Dutch settlers (Afrikannas)  Stayed in control till 1990  African national congress (ANC) formed in 1912   Led by western-oriented individuals  Composed of the African elites  Limited mass support initially  1948: Apartheid was instituted by the government  Apartheid: Legalized form of racial discrimination  There were the: (everyone was assigned to a category) o Whites o Indians o Colored o Black African  this affected daily lives of people  response to apartheid produced a radicalization of the ANC o their approach changed o their leaders became more radicalized seeing what the government was doing  Armed confrontation between the ANC and the government o Apartheid (apart-hood)  Institutionalized segregation  Everyone lives in separate communities (unequal SOL)  Petty Apartheid & Grand Apartheid  Petty: discrimination in social spaces (like on cannot go to certain public spaces due to segregation)  Grand: o Policies related to marriage, housing, land and policies related to jobs  Resistance to apartheid:  ANC, progressive white population  When they saw no one was responding to their non-violent campaigns, they had to turn to violence in their anti-apartheid struggle  South Africa became a police state because of their policies  Many African countries condemned South Africa in the UN  The US and UK was opposing the countries trying to condemn them because of the cold war  End of the Apartheid:  Rising internation opposition to south African government o Lost support from US and UK  1989: F.W de Klerk becomes president o An Afrikaner Politian  He released Nelson Mandela (1990) o Was jailed for life due to in sighting/ engaging in violence against the white minority government  Lifting ban on African political parties  1994: Multi-racial election were held in South Africa   ANC wins elections and Mandela is elected as the first black president of South Africa  Post Apartheid south Africa:  Truth and reconciliation Commission o There was a lot of anger between the Black and white communities in S. Africa o This commission was formed with a goal to investigate and find out what happened under the white minority government so that the people can know what actually happened o Reconciliation so no civil war breaks out  To stop the people from taking revenge basically  Economic problems for black South Africans remain  ANC remains in power BUT allegations of corruption among ANC leaders o Nigeria:  Africa’s most populous country  Extremely diverse country with more than 300 ethnic groups  put together through imperial border  brought together communities that did not live together in a historical sense but now they all live and work together  Major groups:  Northern Nigeria: Hausa-Fulani (Muslims)  Southeastern Nigeria: Igbo (Mostly Christians)  Southwestern Nigeria: Yoruba (Islam and Christianity)  Independent Nigeria:  1960: Nigerian Independence  Challenges since independence: o Civil war: Biafra crisis (1967-70)  Began because of the concerns of the Igbo who felt discriminated by the Nigerian government  Wanted to form their own state/ government o Military rule: 1966-79, 1983-99 o Ethnic