Chapters and Theories PDF

Functionalist Chapter 11: Social Control -Explaining Deviance perspective something in the social structure, rather than in the individual, causes varied forms of deviance Durkheim: Functionalist perspectives propose that the social struct...

Functionalist Chapter 11: Social Control -Explaining Deviance perspective something in the social structure, rather than in the individual, causes varied forms of deviance Durkheim: Functionalist perspectives propose that the social structure causes deviance. What is our society doing or not doing to influence this Deviance emerges from anomie or when society changes too rapidly o Leads to feelinsg of normlessness Only excessive amounts of deviance are harmful Small amounts can be beneficial (seeing punishment reminds us of the rules) Merton: Robert Merton = best known for his studies in deviance known as classic strain theory Merton connected deviance to social structure o Ex - socioeconomic status—contributes to deviance. We’re raised to want to be wealthy and successful, through education and hard work, however some have less access to them o Most less fortunate still conform o Institutionalized goals = the goals we are supposed to aspire in comtermary society ▪ Wealth, power prestige o Legitimate means = the socially accepted ways of attaining wealth, power, prestige ▪ Good education, working hard, investing money wisely ▪ Socioety is structed in a way that some people have less access to those legitimate means ▪ There is a ‘gap’ but people still dream on achieving things The “gaps” between goals and achieving then which greats a sense of “strain” and how to close them Adaption conformity = Most people continue to aspire to conventional goals and do their best to pursue the legitimate means of achieving them (e.g., getting a university degree). Others respond to the gap by accepting the goals of wealth, power, and prestige but rejecting the legitimate means of obtaining them. Using innovation= they find alternative means o Ex- obtaining wealth through credit card fraud Ritualism = giving up on the institutionalized goals but continuing to engage in the means, such as by reliably working at their low-paid jobs until retirement retreatism = Others may adapt to the discrepancy between means and goals by rejecting the institutionalized goals and the legitimate means, perhaps escaping into substance abuse or not even bothering to look for work anymore  Rebellion= rejecting the current goals and means but living according to an alternative set of goals and means. Explanations of the causes of deviance come from outside the five core theoretical perspectives in sociology as well. For instance, learning theories propose that people learn from others to act in deviant ways o We might learn deviant behaviour in our peer groups ( ▪ e.g., how to use performance-enhancing drugs to gain a competitive advantage in sports) o by being rewarded for deviant acts or imitating the deviant actions of others ▪ (e.g., by growing up in a family with a history of substance abuse or criminal activity), o or by finding ways to justify our behaviours Control theories also fall outside the core theoretical perspectives in sociology but are central to studying deviance. o Control theories draw attention to the factors that restrain most of us from unacceptable acts; the absence of those factors results in deviance ▪ Ex- social bonds may restrain us from deviance, like not wanting to disappoint your parents or risk losing your scholarship or your job ▪ Ex- it may be basic self-control that restrains us from deviant acts. Why do you save your money for a new phone rather than stealing it? Because you have self-control Interactionist According to interactionist perspectives, through our interactions with perspective significant others and the generalized other, as well as the influence of the looking-glass self, we develop understandings of what acts are acceptable or unacceptable Edwin Lemerts = labelling theory argues that getting caught at deviance is the impetus for a chain of events that change how people are treated and how they come to understand and identify themselves. o we all engage in primary deviance (Minor acts that are done rarely or infrequently) ▪ Ex – drinking alcohol to excess o Because infrequent transgressions are likely to go undetected, people are able to maintain a non-deviant self-image Secondary deviance = chronic deviance as a lifestyle o EX – someone have a drinking problem Goffman = people who engage in certain acts or who have particular characteristics face stigmatization o Face stigmatization = the process where individuals are excluded because of particular characteristics/behaviors Conflict structures of power determine which behaviours or characteristics are Perspective defined and treated as deviant holding power enables groups to define their own behaviours as “normal” while defining the behaviours of others as “deviant” and in need of social control. Feminist draw attention to facets of deviance such as the differential standards that Perspective women and men face in determining what is considered deviant and the varying experiences they have of being socially typed as deviant and subjected to measures of social control. o Ex - A male who wishes to be a daycare worker is more likely to be considered deviant than a woman with that same wish o Ex- woman who wants to work on an oil rig is more likely to be socially typed as deviant than a male in that position Postmodern Foucault focused on why we often don’t have to be controlled by others but perspective actually control our own behaviours through self-surveillance self-surveillance = monitoring our own behaviors to prevent being considered deviant We live in a society where we are constantly monitored o Ex – through socila media o If we are active on social media, we can be under surveillance by others at any time of the day or night. A selfie that we post this morning might be viewed—and judged—by others immediately, two hours late Interactionist Chapter 6 – the mass media presentive The media is a big spot for social interactions Through media we develop understandings of issues, events and ourselves Media framing Frame Analysis (1974)- sociologist Erving Goffman (1922–1982) explained that how an interaction or event is depicted or “framed” is integral to its perceived meaning. Stuart Hall uses the term “representation” to describe how meanings are attributed to media images Entman maintains that the essential determinant of framing is “sizing” because this helps the general public interpret the importance of an event. o Sizing refers to “the overall salience of the event in the flow of the news” based on “how much material on the event is available” and “how prominently it is displayed” framing includes the overall objectives of particular shows: o Ex - the tough guy wins the Ultimate Fighting Championship title  some social groups have a greater presence in media than others o When certain social groups are absent from media frames, it renders them invisible to public consciousness, which affects people’s perceptions and understandings of those groups, and can contribute to stereotypes = overgeneralizations about a group that are often based on faulty assumptions Entman (1991) identifies four other properties of news narrative that create certain frames that construct the meaning of the news topic at hand: 1. Agency the inclusion of particular words that suggest where responsibility for an event lies. Ex - For example, Newsweek’s cover headline “Murder in the Air” and Time’s “Shooting to Kill: The Soviets Destroy an Airliner” helped frame the 1983 downing of Korean Air Lines Flight 007 as an intentional event with a clearly guilty party 2. Identification the use of words that encourage (or discourage) identification with the central characters in a news story Ex - “loved ones,” encourages identification, whereas use of neutral terms, such as “those who died” or “civilians,” discourages identification 3. Categorization the overall framework used to label an event by the media Ex - The Korean Air Lines incident mentioned earlier was most often categorized in the print media as an “attack” rather than a “tragedy.” 4. Generalization the extent to which a media story is generalized to a larger political system or issue Ex - Reporting of terrorist attacks in Europe, North America, and other parts of the world is often generalized to the rise of ideological groups like Islamic extremists Media Violence – sociology on screen Social learning theory proposes that people learn by observing the behaviour of others (as well as its consequences) and then go on to imitate that behaviour Albert Bandura = famous for classic studies on observational learning Desensitization theory proposes that repeated exposure to violence lessens its emotional impact Cultivation theory purports that repeated exposure to television violence has cumulative effects on viewers  Social media is one of our front stages, where we carefully manage the impressions that our friends or followers have of us – goffmans dramaturgical theory Ex- People moving their computers to another room or redecorating their home offices during the COVID-19 pandemic is an example of what? Our impression management in social media is constrained by the nature of technology. Zhao and Zappavigna (2018) propose that media technologies themselves create the structure within which meanings and understandings form. o Ex- In the context of the selfie, that structure consists of the hardware, software, and social media platforms Zappavigna says using these apps, you are no longer presenting your authentic self on social media, but rather constructing an augmented self. Social media and adolescents It effects or personal and social identity Online = social media shows, adolescents know others and are known by others Offline = adolescence, follow celebrities online they take the celebrity actions they see online off-line to peer groups Feminist Feminist theorists also argue that the media have a significant impact, at both the Perspective micro and macro levels, in part by stereotyped portrayals of women and men. Many feminist perspectives point out that most differences between men and women are socially constructed rather than the result of biology. The media teach us, for example, that popular women are tuned into the latest consumer trends The media also emphasize the importance of women’s beauty Male characters tend to be portrayed as either jokers, jocks, strong silent types, big shots, action heroes, or buffoons Postmodern Postmodern ideas tend to underlie social action. Perspective o The popularity of YouTube attests to the ability of consumers to influence the media and one another in ways that reshape cultural trends. Approaches the media also encourage consumers to be aware of media ownership objectives to think critically about the messages they take in and to make informed choices about the kinds of messages and media they choose to engage with. Functiolist functionalist perspective is social order, it helps us see how the media perspective contribute to social stability - Media contributes to the maintenance of social order  - Media are key agents of socializatio - Media serves a cognative function = providing us with important information. - Media serve a social-integrative function = by connecting us to other people Conflict Elite control what ppl view and see on media perspctive Media promotes social inequilties Functionalist Chapter 10 – Religion Perspectives Durkheim suggested that religion plays an important role in maintaining social solidarity When large numbers of people gather to participate in religious rituals, those rituals transmit the accumulated wisdom of the culture to participants—known as the collective conscience collective conscience = unified body of cultural knowledge that gets transmitted in group religious rituals Collective effervescence = an excitement that enables people to transcend the challenges of every day like that emerges from group religious rituals Both the collective conscience and collective effervescence serve important functions: they strengthen social bonds and thereby maintain the social order. Durkheim suggested that with industrialization and the ensuing organic solidarity, other institutions would increasingly take over some of the functions that were traditionally fulfilled by religion. Ex - For example, the school system now plays a greater role in socializing children to treat others with kindness and respect. Finally, functionalists analyze some of the dysfunctions of religion, such as residential schooling, war, and acts of violence. Conflict Karl Marx described religion as the opium of the people Perspectives The oppressed proletariat escapes from the ugliness of their lives into religion. This provides them with temporary relief from life’s difficulties but also prevents them from seeing the structured inequality within which they live Consequently, it precludes them from rising up and overthrowing their oppressors.  Contemporary conflict theorists continue to look at how religion has “implications for the distribution of power in society” Ex- critics contend that although religious freedom is protected in Canada today, non-Christian religious minorities continue to be marginalized Quebec government passed Bill 21 (see Chapter 3). This law prohibits public sector employees from displaying religious symbols in their attire at work, such as the Muslim hijab, Sikh turban, Jewish kippah Civil rights groups argue that not only does Bill 21 violate the right to religious freedom but also it disproportionately affects religious minorities o Ex – someone could hide there cross necklace but you cant hide a head covering conflict arises in multicultural societies. The cultural group in power imposes their own cultural norms, values, and beliefs on subordinate cultures in society Interactionist Max Weber, whose work is affiliated with both the conflict and interactionist Perspectives perspectives Unlike Marx, who suggested that changing economic structures create subsequent changes in thought, Weber argued that changes in thought—the way people understand themselves and the world around them—precede structural changes Contemporary interactionists study the ways that the social interactions, rituals, and symbols that comprise religious belief and practice contribute to people’s understandings of life and society and to the development of their identities Feminist One traditional area of emphasis is the absence or the oppression of women Perspectives in many religions nother area of focus by feminists is the intersection of religion and sexualities Postmodern Postmodern perspectives highlight the plurality of all religions and Perspectives spiritualities. o Ex- there are many forms of judisum In terms of religious practice, postmodern perspectives are associated with individually focused religious and spiritual practice, o Ex - such as “New Age” spirituality and “spiritual seeking,” which draw upon bits and pieces of a variety of world religions and other non-religious spiritual pursuits (e.g., astrology, crystals, yoga). Postmodern Chapter 10 – Science is a truth Perspectives Foucault (1980) explained that “knowledge” is deeply intertwined with power  o When certain truths emerge from locations of power in the social structure, those claims are recognized as legitimate knowledge Feminist Feminist researchers have devoted a considerable amount of time to analyses of Perspectives science, lending an explicit social justice dimension to the discussion. these researchers have emphasized 3 things 1. women in science 2. tying science to social and political action 3. proposing “new” ways of practicing science. women in science Feminist scholars addressed the under representation of women scientists and the challenges that female scientist face in the male-dominated profession Intersectionality is evident as not a single Black female scientist was featured in any textbooks There is an androcentric male bias – women have not been researched enough therefore male body's are “normal” but female body's are different for mens Improving science means tying to Social in political action They argue that values should underlie scientific practice, and that scientists should allow their own political affiliations or social movement memberships to guide their research. proposing “new” ways of practicing science Constructing “better” scientific knowledge means having as diverse a group of scientists as possible, who hold various statuses and have developed different standpoints accordingly. o Harding applies feminist standpoint theory by arguing that women occupy a distinctive location in society o Harding claims that science emerging from the standpoint of women would create a superior body of scientific knowledge o Haraway (1991) suggests that “women” are not a single cohesive group and do not reflect a unified standpoint. Instead, each woman has multiple standpoints based on all of the different aspects of her life Functionalist Chapter 10 – Education Perspectives Functionalist perspectives focus on how educational practices help promote stability and order in society  Durkheim emphasized the importance of education for instilling cultural values and norms that help maintain moral order Arsons explained how schools transition individuals from informal, person-centred roles in their families to more formal roles required by a highly competitive, achievement-oriented work domain o Ex- in preschool and kindergarten, a teacher (usually a woman) provides nurturing and encouragement, similar to that experienced in the home o Ex - As children progress through the grades, more emphasis is placed on structure. Students sit in rows at desks and learn to be on time, to respect other students, and to follow the teacher’s directions. The Manifest and Latent Functions of Education Manifest= manifest (i.e., intended) functions of social institutions – ex- you go to school to learn a job Latent = latent (i.e., unintended or hidden) functions – ex- you go to school are meet your boyfriend Four main manifest functions of education 1. Skill and knowledge development a. At each grade level, students are taught a standardized curriculum relevant to their level of development i. Ex- in Grade 1 would be expected to be able to sort objects 2. Historical and cultural transmission a. Schools pass on historical knowledge, norms, and cultural values i. Ex- high school graduates in Alberta are expected to be well versed in the history and geography of Canada 3. Social development a. The education system socializes members of society to get along with one another in varied contexts i. Ex- Grade 9 students learn how to refine personal goals relevant to career paths and to develop strategies for risk and stress management 4. Social control a. Students learn the importance of respecting authority figures and following rules i. Ex- raising your hand before speaking Schools also serve a latent function matchmaking function in that students often have their first date with a fellow student.  Schools help develop important friendships and social networks, which can provide future benefits, such as business contacts and perhaps, eventually, spouses. Conflict B perspective / The Social Reproduction of Class crital approach Public education is provided to all Canadians, funded by provincial or territorial governments and local taxes But there are many hidden costs- ex: textbooks, school supplies, mandatory fees for student supervision, payments associated with activities like field trips o Because of hidden school costs, the experience can be quite different for children of different social classes According to conflict perspectives, the education system not only treats the social classes differently but also reproduces social inequality Hidden Curriculum: This refers to the process whereby students are exposed to a subtle agenda of norms, values, and expectations that fall outside the formal curriculum and learned via teaching methods and interactions with others at school Philip W. Jackson said this Conflict perspectives are concerned not only with whose values and norms are transmitted but also with how learning takes place and the environment in which it takes place hidden curriculum conveys important messages about gender that have a lasting impact on people’s lives o Ex – kindergarten teacher's reinforce traditional gender roles The hidden curriculum serves to maintain racial and ethnic inequalities Streaming: students are placed in specific educational contexts based on levels of achievement Different forms of streaming: Within-class placement, where teachers break students up into groups based on levels of achievement o Ex- students who are skilled at math are grouped together, and those who face challenges with math are grouped together, when working on a math exercise between-class placement, where students take specific courses or follow certain curricular paths o Ex – academic or applied math courses certain schools may be identified as more “academic,” while others are considered more vocational, sports-oriented, or arts-based In some regions or countries, placement is guided by policy and formalized evaluation, and imposed on students. In other cases, streaming is based on student or parental choice, based on some combination of previous grades, teacher assessments, and advice of counsellors Streaming is intended to enable teachers to better address the needs of varied groups of learners and to facilitate the varied career goals of students o reproducing social inequality ▪ streaming tends to benefit students who already occupy positions of privilege ▪ Ex- White, middle-class, Canadian-born students are disproportionately represented in “academic” schools Students from lower classes are socialized within their families in ways that may differentiate them from those in the higher classes within the educational system middle-class parents take a concerted Lower-class parents take a a natural cultivation approach to parenting growth approach to parenting they impress on their children Lower-class parents are less the value of education, enroll able to instill the value of them in structured activities education in their children that enhance critical thinking, ecause they tend to have lower and take a proactive role in levels of education identifying resources when themselves). their children are having Because of restricted problems in school resources, they are less likely to place their children in structured activities that facilitate learning; instead, their children spend their free time at home or playing with friends in the neighborhood The nature of socialization within middle-class families provides children with cultural capital cultural capital: Cultural capital refers to symbolic assets that one acquires by virtue of social class o Some forms of cultural capital are embodied ex- the way we speak o Other forms are objectified ex- like books, art, dance, and music o other forms are institutionalized ex - such as the specific streams that students graduate from in high school cultural capital was originally discussed within the context of social class, today it is often applied to membership in other social groups as well, such as those based on race, ethnicity, or gender. Because society is stratified, certain forms of cultural capital—those associated with dominant groups—are assigned greater value Ex - speaking Standard American English, taking ballet classes rather then taking a hip hop class in the street o This is not because one is inherently superior to the other, but rather, that society is structured in a way that favours one over the other Back to streaming Whether students are placed in different schools or along different curricular paths, streaming has implications for student expectations and goals, achievement, and life paths Educational segregation is especially evident when comparing public and private schools Private (or independent) schools: run by private individuals or organization where parents pay annual tuition. Private schools are most likely to be attended by individuals of higher socioeconomic status, especially the elite schools public schools: are funded through provincial and local governments Social stratification is fostered in the educational system through a process called credentialism credentialism = the reliance on increasingly higher educational qualifications as the minimal requirements for employment Ex- a minimum of a baccalaureate degree is now the required credential for employment as a bank manager, while in the 1970s it was a high school diploma. o Functionalists argue that higher educational attainment is necessary due to technological advancements in society and to ensure that specialized occupations are filled by the most qualified people o Conflict theorists refute this claim, pointing out that many skills can be learned on the job and that those with higher levels of education are not always more productive ▪ also point out how increased education in industrial societies has moved well beyond the technical needs of the workforce, such that there is a surplus of overeducated, unemployed (or underemployed) individuals ▪ Conflict theorists claim that as educational requirements increase in relation to specific occupations, so do the odds that those positions will be disproportionately filled by  members of society who came from privileged families who could afford to send them to the best schools and universities ▪ conflict theorists also point out that there are many forms of employment that yield incomes that may be considered questionable in terms of their comparable worth or value to society. Ex – are you a hockey player making millions or a covid nurse making $18 an hour Interactionist Interactionist perspectives can help us understand the micro-level processes that Perspectives can lead to those macro-level outcomes. How teachers perceive their students, the meanings teachers ascribe to the actions and words of pupils, and how students come to understand their instructors, the curriculum, their classmates, and themselves all have important implications Power differentials between students and teachers can play an important role in how meanings are constructed in classroom settings Because of the generalized other and the looking-glass self, how one is perceived, and perhaps labelled, by others has important implications for future behaviours and one’s self-esteem self-fulfilling: originally false belief that becomes true simply because it is perceived as such o Ex- a student is called the trouble maker in class. Growing up all tecahers now view him as a troublemaker which effects his perfromce and confidence in school classic study by Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968) illustrates the role of the self-fulfilling prophecy in classrooms o In the study they said to tecahers they gave an IQ test to these kids and 12 kids are the smartest but they lied and just choose 12 random kids o Then at the end of the year they did actul IQ test and the 12 random kids did have the highest IQ ▪ This is bc teachers perceived and treated them as children who would make progress. ▪ Subsequently, these students began to see themselves in that way, and their academic behaviours changed to enable them to meet those expectations. Postmodern Postmodern perspectives discount traditional theories of education that make Perspectives general assumptions about educational practices  postmodern approaches advocate the use of a variety of methods to assess student achievement and the selection of methods that work best for individual outcomes – not just test scores Functionalist Chapter 12 - Health and Illness Perspectives Functionalist Perspectives: The Sick Role Talcott Parsons- theorized about the sick role Said sickness as dysfunctional for society When people are sick, they are unable to fulfill their roles as students, employees, or parents. Instead, they adopt the sick role, a temporary role associated with certain rights and responsibilities o There are 4 components of the sick role 1. sick person is granted a temporary exemption from their normal social duties a. Ex- It is acceptable to miss an exam or a day of work, although some official documentation may be required to legitimize the absence 2. sick person is not considered to be responsible for their condition but rather is given sympathy 3. sick person’s responsibility to try to get well; failure to do so results in the sick role no longer being considered legitimate 4. sick person’s responsibility to seek competent technical help and cooperate with the physician’s directions Sick role = The sick person is granted a temporary exemption from their normal social duties Sanders suggests that the sick role is based on the male, breadwinner model. in your workplace, a cold may not be considered a legitimate excuse for missing a day of work, whereas a chronic health problem (e.g., diabetes) may result in an ongoing level of exemption Sometimes individuals are blamed for their illnesses. o For example, people diagnosed with lung cancer report feeling stigmatized for their illness, especially if they smoked at some point in their lives even when able to legitimately occupy a sick role, some individuals face constraints. o Those of lower socioeconomic status may not be able to afford to lose the wages associated with missing one or more days of work  o Single parents domt know what to do about child care Some scholars suggest that the 21st century is characterized by “regimes of patienthood” rather then a sick role being a “good” patient today means becoming a knowledgeable patient o Doing at home treatments and reaserch Other scholars contend that, in contemporary society, the sick role has broadened Not only are we responsible for trying to get well when sick, but also we are accountable for health promotion - through lifestyle behaviours and illness prevention- through regular medical screening Interactionist Interactionist Perspectives: The Cultural Meanings of Health and Illness Perspectives sociologists who apply interactionist theories focus on the experience and meanings of health or illness Schneider and Conrad (1983) distinguished between sickness and illness Sickness = is a pathology of the body Illness = is the meaning attached to that physical experience Using medication is not simply a matter of following physicians’ instructions; it emerges from the interaction between physicians’ instructions and one’s own relationships, beliefs, and experiences o Related it looking at the sickness of epliplsy o the manner in which people with epilepsy use their medication is based on factors such as the meaning that seizures have for the individual, perceptions of the side effects of the medication, the desire to prevent others from becoming aware of the epilepsy, and the need to prevent seizures in some social situations more than others. ▪ People with the same illness may adopt very different identities. The nature of one’s illness identity is, in part, the product of social factors. o For example, research with youth who have Type 1 diabetes finds that those with overprotective parents (relative to their peers) are more likely to feel overwhelmed and helpless as they grow up and become responsible for their own disease management Conflict Conflict Perspectives: The Consequences of Power and Inequality Perspectives Because of social inequality and relations of power, different groups have varying levels of access to both health-promoting resources and sickness-causing factors Engels was the first conflict theorist to address sociocultural influences on health and illness.  He aruged: o with capitalism, large numbers of people left rural agricultural life for wage labour in urban areas o But the bourgeois owners of the means of production were guided by their own profit motives. o To make the largest profits possible, they underpaid their workers, who had no choice but to live and work in unhealthy conditions. o This set the stage for the emergence and transmission of infectious diseases. Navarro indicates that there is an inherent contradiction between the profit motive of capitalism and the health needs of people. The corporate need for profit that results in people having to live or work in unhealthy conditions conflict theorists critique the healthcare system itself, such as the state’s power to legitimize some forms of healthcare (e.g., a visit to a physician) over others (e.g., a visit to a holistic health practitioner) and the power of the corporate elite in the healthcare system. Health becomes a commodity, and the pursuit of health occurs via gym memberships, athletic shoes, vitamins and supplements, meditation classes, and personal fitness trackers. Health is about convincing people to engage in health-promoting behaviours Health is about convincing people to engage in health-promoting behaviours (using the right products) rather than about changing the structural conditions that contribute to health and illness in the first place The capitalist motive is even evident in fundraising efforts, in what is called “cause marketing” or “social marketing.” Social marketing = When one purchases a particular product within a certain period of time—a portion of the proceeds will go to support a particular cause, such as breast cancer or autism Feminist Feminist Perspectives: Women’s Health and Illness Perspectives Mirco level Historically, women’s physical symptoms were often dismissed as the result of stress or anxiety rather than physical illness Women face “barriers to credibility as their symptoms are read through gendered and moral discourses that cast women as hypochondriacs, and weaker, less rational, more emotional, and more likely to complain than men” Women try to strike a careful balance in the way they style their hair and makeup prior to a visit to a physician. If they looked too put together, doctors would assume that their physical health was fine  Macro Women are seen in a more medical light now Medicalization = the ways that certain characteristics or conditions are “defined in medical language, understood through the adoption of a medical framework, or ‘treated’ with medical intervention o For most of human history, issues related to pregnancy and childbirth were handled by other women, such as midwives. o But in the more medicalized environment of the 20th century, both became conditions that required a physician’s care. o Even the normal functioning of the female body (e.g., childbirth, menopause) became a condition to be monitored and treated by medical professionals Postmodern Knowledge, Power, and Discourse Perspectives As medical science became increasingly intertwined with rational-bureaucratic healthcare systems in the 20th century, physicians’ claims about health and illness gained supremacy over those of other types of health practitioners, such as midwives because medical discourses are elite discourses, we perceive them as the only possible means of understanding the world. Fox applied Foucauldian assumptions to an analysis of communications between physicians and patients during post-surgical ward rounds. fox notes that the way surgeons structure postoperative communications ensures that medical discourses remain privileged After sugery while still recovering form all the drugs doctors would have convos with paitemts When patients try to disrupt this linear transition (e.g., they ask about being discharged while the physician is still addressing the condition of the wound), physicians quickly use medical discourses to bring the communication back on track. Despite being the ones who spend the most time in direct contact with patients, nurses and physicians disparage them, dismiss their opinions, and exclude them from providing input into patient care plans Functionalist Chapter 13 – collective behaviour Perspective  The Functionalist Perspective: Value-added Theory In explaining social movements, it is important to consider historical conditions and events because social movements often arise in response to existing societal-level conditions, especially those that cause strain. In his value-added theory, Neil Smelser discussed six factors that facilitate social action: 1. Structural conduciveness—the broad social conditions that are necessary for collective behaviour to take place a. Ex- economic pressure, political corruption). 2. Structural strain—underlying problems that have resulted from or that have not been adequately addressed by the current system a. Ex - (gender inequality, racism, pay inequities, environmental degradation, widespread unemployment, etc.) 3. The growth and spread of a generalized belief—the widespread awareness that a particular issue is a social problem and that steps should and can be taken to change it a. The internet is especially helpful in spreading claims b. Due to widespread social media use and the internet's role as an independent media source, Castells (2015) highlights how Tunisian protesters sustained calls for full democratization. 4. Precipitating factors—events or behaviours that serve as “triggers” or breaking points. 5. Mobilization of participation for action—the gathering of potential participants a. This often needs inspirational leaders to spread the message and encourage direct involvement in the solution. 6. The operation of social control—in the absence of strong forms of direct control by police or the military, people are no longer restrained from carrying out collective efforts According to Smelser (1962), each factor must be present in its order to promote the next stage in collective behavior development. Without one or more of these factors, collective action is unlikely. Critiques of value-added theories point out that they fail to address the broader political context in which many social movements arise. Conflict resource mobilization theory Perspective social movements develop as a function of how resources are brought together and utilized by leaders  According to Edwards and McCarthy (2004), this includes how leaders organize: o moral resources (the legitimacy of the claim) o cultural resources (such as strategic know-how) o social-organizational resources (the development of networks) o human resources (experienced activists and people with the skills to further organizational goals) o various material resources (finances, office space) political process theory the importance of cycles of contention and of political opportunities to pave the way for protest movements political opportunities are situational features that enable movement development through: o access (e.g., elections) o shifting alignments (e.g., changes in what a particular political party supports or does not support) o divided elites o influential allies o repression or facilitation by the state Combining these 2 theory's into - “political entities aiming to create social change” a social movement interprets a particular issue as a form of social injustice, calls attention to that issue in particular ways to develop a constructed meaning that resonates with the collectivity and inspires them to mobilize for action Karl Marx overestimated the ability of the proletariat to perceive their shared inequality and develop a class consciousness regard their ongoing exploitation Interactionist new social movement theory, focuses solely on social movements that have arisen in Perspective post-industrial or advanced societies, largely since the 1960s. According to this theory, post-industrial movements tend to emphasize human rights (women’s rights, LGBTQIA2S+ rights) and global issues (global warming, poverty, peace) rather than economic issues, as was the case with earlier labour and worker movements. A collective identity = is a shared sense of belonging or “we-ness” that binds individuals in a social movement; it serves as the “animating spirit” that propels them to act on behalf of that social movement An important contribution of the new social movement theory Frames and Frame Alignment Collective identity develops from the meanings people come to share regarding a social movement’s purpose, claims, activities, and leadership. Framing processes = help transition individual views into shared ones that become part of the collective identity To explain how objects and events come to have meaning for individuals, Goffman introduced the idea of “frames” as cognitive structures that allow people to take notice of objects and events in the wider world in the context of their own life experiences. “Frame alignment” = processes entail attempts by social movement organizations to present their claims and directives in a manner that “fits” individuals’ existing ideas and values 1. “frame bridging,” which involves linking ideologically compatible individuals a. Linking who is involved 2. “frame amplification,” which involves the “idealization, embellishment, clarification, or invigoration of existing values or beliefs” 3. “frame extension,” which moves interests beyond the primary focus to other areas of interest to potential members 4. “frame transformation,” which includes attempts to bring about complete changes in ideology The Idle No More movement is an exemplary model for all of these processes. Hund and Benford summarize the distinction between old and new social movements by noting that “class consciousness” has, for all intents and purposes, been replaced by “collective identity” “as the factor that accounts for mobilization and individual attachments to new social movements”