Chapters 8 & 12 - Conformity & Social Influence PDF

Chapters 8 and 12 Key Terms & Study Guide Chapter 8: Conformity Key Concepts & Theories Define Conformity. The fundamental aspect of social influence where...

Chapters 8 and 12 Key Terms & Study Guide Chapter 8: Conformity Key Concepts & Theories Define Conformity. The fundamental aspect of social influence where individuals adjust their behaviors or opinions to align with group norms. This can occur due to various reasons, such as the desire for social acceptance or the belief that the group has better information. Informational social influence (ISI) Occurs when individuals conform because they believe the group is competent and has the correct information. When unsure about the correct answer or behavior, individuals look to the group for guidance. Example: In 1935, Muzafer Sherif conducted a classic study on conformity. Sherif put subjects in a dark room and told them to watch a pinpoint of light and say how far it moved. The autokinetic effect is an illusion; the light does not actually move, but people usually believe that it does. Normative social influence (NSI) Occurs when individuals conform to be liked or accepted by the group. Individuals change their opinions or behaviors to align with the group to avoid social rejection. Example: In 1951 Solomon Asch devised a judgment task. Asch put a naive participant in a room with seven confederates. The confederates had agreed in advance what their responses would be when presented with the line task. The real participant did not know this and was led to believe that the other seven confederates were also actual participants like themselves. Types of Social Influence Conformity- need to fit in Obedience – Following authority Normative social influence- seeking approval Compliance – submission to requests Informational social influence – seeking accuracy Constructive obedience – benefiting society Destructive obedience – harming others When people conform Number of people in the group. Importance of the group to the individual. Whether the individual likes the group. Anonymity of responses. Social and behavioral context Social Impact Theory Suggests that the amount of influence a person experiences in a social situation depends on the strength, immediacy, and number of people exerting the influence. This theory helps explain why people conform in different social contexts. Example: Voting Anonymously When individuals can vote anonymously, they are less likely to conform to group pressure. Public responses increase conformity due to normative social influence. Anonymous responses reduce the pressure to conform, allowing individuals to express their genuine opinions. Ways to resist social influence Develop confidence in one’s own beliefs and abilities, seek out social support from like-minded individuals, question the motives of those attempting to influence you, and use humor or other forms of persuasion to deflect pressure to conform. Emotional Contagion Occurs when one person exhibits symptoms, leading others to believe they are also affected, even if there is no actual threat. Example: Airplane Incident One person was ill on an airplane, causing others to believe there was a problem, even though there wasn't. The initial illness led to a chain reaction of perceived symptoms among passengers. Example: Lecture Hall Incident In a lecture hall, one person started showing symptoms of poisoning, leading others to believe they were also poisoned. The symptoms spread through the room due to emotional contagion. Milgram studies The study demonstrated that people are likely to follow orders from an authority figure, even to the extent of harming others. Example: Two-thirds of participants in Milgram’s first shock study delivered the full 450 volts, and all participants made it to 300 volts. The participants in that study, and in the many follow-up variations on the study that Milgram conducted, consistently shocked other people at very high rates. Participants were willing to administer shocks up to 450 volts to participants. Injunctive & Descriptive norms Norms guide behavior within a society. Injunctive norms focus on what is approved. Descriptive norms focus on what people actually do. Example: Parking Lot Experiment A parking lot was either clean or littered, and a confederate either picked up litter or added to it.  People were more likely to litter if they saw the confederate littering. Chapter 8: Conformity Key Terms Social Influence The many ways people affect one another, including changes in attitudes, beliefs, feelings, and behavior resulting from comments, actions or even the mere presence of others. Conformity Changing one's beliefs or behavior to more closely align with those of others in response to explicit or implicit pressure (real or imagined) to do so. Compliance Responding favorably to an explicit request from another person. Obedience In an unequal power relationship, submitting to the demands of the person or authority. Informational Social Influence The influence of other people that results from taking their comments or actions as a source of information about what is correct, proper, or effective. Normative Social Influence The influence of other people that comes from the desire to avoid their disapproval of other social sanctions (ridicule, barbs, ostracism) Internalization Private acceptance of a proposition, orientation, or ideology. Foot-in-the-door Technique A compliance approach involves making an initial small request with which nearly everyone complies, followed by a larger request involving the real behavior of interest. Pluralistic Ignorance A phenomenon in which people act in ways that conflict with their true attitudes or beliefs because they believe others don’t share them. When a great many people do so, their behavior reinforces the erroneous group norms. Descriptive Norms The behavior exhibited by most people in a given context. Prescriptive Norms The way a person is supposed to behave in a given context is also called injunctive norms. Norm of Reciprocity A norm dictating that people should provide benefits to those who benefit them. Reciprocal Concessions Technique A compliance approach that involves asking someone for a very large favor that will certainly be refused and then following that request with one of a smaller favor (which tends to be seen as a concession the target feels compelled to honor.) Negative State Release Hypothesis The idea that people engage in certain actions, such as agreeing to a request to relieve their negative feelings and feel better about themselves. Chapter 12: Groups  Key Concepts & Theories What is a group, and how are they Defined by three or more individuals who interact with defined? each other, share a common identity, and accept expectations and obligations as members of that group, essentially meaning they perceive themselves as a distinct social unit with some degree of interdependence and shared goals. Group influence Involves how individuals' behaviors and decisions are affected by group dynamics. Key aspects include informational social influence, which is conforming based on information from others, and conformity, obedience, and persuasion. Group influence can lead to changes in behavior due to the desire to fit in or follow group norms. Groupthink Explanation happens when the desire for group harmony overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives. Members suppress dissenting viewpoints, leading to poor decision-making. It is more common in cohesive groups with strong leaders. Example: The Stanford Prison Experiment demonstrated how individuals conform to social roles and norms, often leading to extreme behaviors. The guards' cruelty was a result of their perceived power and the dehumanization of prisoners. Participants were assigned roles of guards and prisoners. The guards became increasingly cruel, leading to the early termination of the study. Participants conformed to their assigned roles. The guards' behavior was influenced by their perceived authority and the dehumanization of prisoners. The study was terminated early due to ethical concerns. Drive Theory Refers to increased arousal and internal motivation to reach a particular goal. Primary drives are directly related to survival and include the need for food, water, and oxygen. Secondary or acquired drives are those that are culturally determined or learned, such as the drive to obtain money, intimacy, or social approval. Social facilitation Occurs when the presence of others enhances performance for familiar tasks or well-learned skills. Example: Zayence's Cockroach Study (1969)  Cockroaches were placed in simple and complex mazes, either alone or with another cockroach. In simple mazes, performance improved with another cockroach present; in complex mazes, performance worsened. The presence of others increases arousal. Arousal facilitates dominant responses, improving performance on simple tasks and hindering it on complex tasks. Social inhibition Occurs when performance is decreased in the presence of others, especially for difficult or novel tasks. Explanations for social facilitation The presence of others can either enhance or impair performance depending on the task's familiarity. Social loafing Occurs when individuals in a group task do not feel their contributions are essential or cannot be individually assessed. This leads to reduced effort compared to when they work alone. Example: Moving a Couch When moving a couch with friends, individuals may exert less effort and rely on others to carry more weight because individual contributions are not monitored, so people rely on others to complete the task. How to reduce social loafing Create clear assignments. Providing group members with straightforward directions can help them establish goals and manage their workflow more effectively within a team.... Divide into subgroups. Making the group environment smaller and more intimate can reduce social loafing Increase supervision Provide individual recognition... Make tasks cooperative Group polarization Occurs when group discussions lead members to adopt more extreme positions than they initially held. This is due to the persuasive arguments presented during discussions and the tendency for individuals to compare themselves with others and adopt more extreme stances to stand out. Group cohesiveness Refers to the qualities that bind members together and promote liking among them. It can enhance group performance and satisfaction. Benefits of groups Essential for survival and reproduction. It offers various benefits that are crucial for the well-being and continuity of species. Example: Todd Ashker in Solitary Confinement  Todd Ashker, a convicted murderer, spent over 20 years in solitary confinement in the SHU at Pelican Bay. He experienced severe psychological effects due to isolation. Ashker's experience highlights the negative impact of isolation on mental health. He formed a group with rival gang leaders to cope with the isolation, demonstrating the human need for social connection. Social Dilemma Require individuals to balance personal gain against the well-being of the group, often leading to ethical and moral considerations. Example: M&M's Sharing Scenario After a plane crash, a group member remembers that they have a limited resource (M&M’s) and must decide whether to share a limited resource for group survival or keep it for individual survival. "Dark side" of groups Can lead to negative behaviors such as losing individual identity and making poor decisions to maintain group harmony. Deindividuation occurs when individuals are in large groups and feel anonymous, leading to a loss of self-awareness and personal responsibility. This can result in behavior that is not aligned with their usual values, as they feel they cannot be identified or held accountable. Example: Trick-or-Treaters Study: Children wearing masks were more likely to steal extra candy compared to those not wearing masks. Masks provided anonymity, reducing self- awareness and increasing the likelihood of stealing. A mirror placed behind the candy bowl increased self-awareness, leading to less stealing. Chapter 12: Groups Key Terms Social Facilitation Initially, a term for self-performance in the presence of others, now a broader term for the effect positive or negative of the presence of others on performance. Dominant Response In a person’s hierarchy of possible responses in any context, that person is most likely to make. Evaluation Apprehension Being judged by others increases arousal, which can enhance performance on simple tasks and impair it on complex tasks. Social Loafing The tendency to exert less effort when working on a group task in which individual contributions cannot be monitored. Groupthink Faulty thinking of members of highly cohesive groups in which the critical scrutiny that people should be devoted to the issues at hand is subverted by social pressures to reach consensus. Self-censorship Withholding information or opinions in group discussions. Group Polarization The tendency for group decisions to be more extreme than those made by individuals; whatever way the group as a whole is leaning; group discussion tends to make it lean further in that direction. Power The ability to control one’s own outcomes and those of others. Social Hierarchy The arrangements of individuals in a group in terms of their relative power. Approach Inhibition Theory A theory maintains that high-power individuals are inclined to pursue their goals and make quick (sometimes rash) judgments, whereas low-power individuals are more likely to constrain their behavior and pay careful attention to others. Deindividuation A reduced sense of individual identity accompanied by diminished self-regulation can come over people when they are in a large group. Individuation An enhanced sense of individual identity is produced by focusing attention on the self, which generally leads people to act carefully deliberately and in accordance with their sense of priority and values. Self-Awareness Theory A theory maintains that when people focus their attention inward on themselves, they become concerned with self-evaluation and how their current behavior conforms to their internal standards and values. Spotlight Effect People believe others pay more attention to their appearance and behavior than they actually do. This effect is pronounced in both positive and negative situations. This can lead to heightened self- consciousness. Example: Barry Manilow T-shirt Study Participants wore a Barry Manilow T-shirt and estimated how many others would remember the image. Participants estimated that about half would remember the image. In reality, only about one-quarter remembered.