Chapter Two: Birth Of A Filipino National Consciousness PDF

**CHAPTER TWO\ " Birth of a Filipino National Consciousness"** Nationalism find its expression in various ways depending on the needs of the people. It usually springs on from the consciousness of a national identity of being one people. It is that all pervading spirit that binds together men of di...

**CHAPTER TWO\ " Birth of a Filipino National Consciousness"** Nationalism find its expression in various ways depending on the needs of the people. It usually springs on from the consciousness of a national identity of being one people. It is that all pervading spirit that binds together men of diverse castes and creeds, clans and color and units them into one people, family, and nation with common aspirations and deals. **Foundations of Our Indigenous Culture-** archaeologists and historians who have been reconstructing our past to ascertain our racial origin and the types of cultures that early migrants brought to the Philippines, have hypothesized that: 1. our indigenous culture began to develop in the pre-historic and pre-Christians eras; 2. these early cultures ranged from the crude Old Stone Age to the Metal Age with organized community life; 3. the early settlers came from Borneo, Indo-China, South China and other parts of Southeast Asia. Malays who started migrating at about 300 B.C to 200 B.C brought here their technology that started the development of our indigenous culture. These skills were mining and smelting of iron tools, weapons, utensils and ornaments; irrigated agriculture; cultivation of fruit, trees, spices, fiber, ornamental plants and other agricultural products; the use of the carabao and the horse as work animals; the manufacture of ornamented pottery and glass beads and art of weaving. The second group of Malays started to come at the beginning of the Christian era and continued migrating through the 13^th^ century. They introduced their syllabary system of writing. The last of the group, the Muslim Malays, came in the latter half of the 14^th^ century, and their migration continued to 15^th^ century. The establishment of their settlements marked the foundation of Islam in Mindanao and Sulu. Towards the end of the 9^th^ century, our country began to experience contacts with Arab, Chinese and Malay traders.  All these pre-colonial contacts accounts for the existence of a system of writing in the islands, the use of metal, the prevalence of beasts of burden and absence of human sacrifices and cannibalism. The settlers in their respective traditions had established an agricultural economy; maintained trade relations with other Asian neighbors; and developed religious and social norms, a language, a system of writing, literature, and a political and judicial system in accordance with the standards of the period. The country was divided into small independent political groups called barangay which were constantly fighting for survival. Phelan attributes the survival of our indigenous culture thus:  This indigenous culture was deeply embedded in the islands. Hence the significant elements of the old culture blended into the new society emerging under Spanish auspices. The Filipinos were and still are tough and flexible, able to absorb new cultural influences - without losing their own identity. They survived the "shock" of their conquest with far less psychological and material damage to themselves. Phelan analyzed the factors that sustained the native culture in its survival and he considers the  "inward cohesiveness of native Philippine society" as the most important. **Unification of the Country by Spain.** The more than three centuries of Spanish domination in the Philippines was one of the longest in Southeast Asia by a west colonizer. Her most worthy legacy was the functional unification of the widely-scattered people under a highly centralized and bureaucratic government. Spain introduced a new concept of taxation and currency system. Roman Catholicism was the state religion. Through Catholicism and a system of education, the Spanish language, western system of writing and alphabet were formally introduced.  The Spanish political system encouraged law and order in the different self-governing communities in the islands. The Spanish policy of *divide et impera* (divide and rule) successfully worked. The process of acculturation and the government's notorious monopolistic restrictions and control dominated the people's lives. Most of the government officials became agents of abuse and oppression. Initial manifestations of the Filipino desire to be freed from Spanish rule came in the form of numerous regional revolts. The most common causes of revolts were discontent and humiliation brought about by racial discrimination and the wanton abuses of the officials in the implementation of policies. The main abuses were the exploitation of manpower through forced labor, the collection of taxes and tributes, and *indulto para comerciar*. Some of these sporadic revolts were the Pampago-Pangasinan Ilocos uprisings (1660-1661) and the Sumoroy (1649-1650) , Diego Silang (1762-1763), Palaris (1762-1764) ; Apolinario de la Cruz (1840-1841) revolts and several others. The desire for religious freedom was another cause of revolts. These kind of revolts occurred in Panay, Tayabas, and Mountain Province. Other important causes of the people's unrest were the friar's usurpation of the lands of natives through questionable land measurements. Agrarian unrest broke out in Batangas, Laguna, Rizal and Cavite.  All these revolts had failed because of sectional jealousies, the lack of communication in the provinces and the absence of a national leadership. Moreover, hostility and disunity among the Filipinos were augmented by the Spanish policy of divide and rule. **Challenge of the 19^th^ Century** Meantime, economic and political developments that were to affect the Philippines either directly or indirectly were shaping up in Europe. These developments were the advances of industrialization, the wide acceptance of the concept of democracy, the spirit of liberalism and the growing salutary effects of Nationalism. **The challenge of Industrialization-** Industrialization rapidly gained momentum in the second half of the 19^th^ century. The use of steel as the base metal of industry,  the discovery of oil, gasoline, and electricity as basic sources of power and industrial energy, and the invention of the internal combustion engine. Man was able to apply the science of electricity to practical problems of lightning transportation, communication and other forms of transmission and traction. Safer, faster and more comfortable means of transportation such as railways and steamships were constructed. Engineering feats like the construction of steel bridges and the Suez Canal opened shorter routes for commerce. Telephone, telegraph and cable facilities enabled people to have better contacts for business and trade. Closer communication between the Philippines and Spain between Europe and Asia was now feasible. Industrialism mechanized production that in turn increased the demand for raw materials and markets for finished products. It encouraged free trade policies that hastened the development of international commerce. The Philippines was eventually drawn into orbit of international trade especially after 1834 when it was opened to foreign traders. This marked a change in the economic and social life of those Filipinos who eventually came into contact with the political and socio-economic developments in Europe. The industrial system created a fast tempo of economic progress and made the bourgeoisie a rich, powerful and influential class in western society. It brought about the emergence of a new social class, the proletariat or the modern working class, that was largely illiterate and propertyless. The workers gained support of socialist philosophers who clamored against the distress and the needs of the exploited workers.  Before 1848 socialism was expressed in various ways but they expounded a common cause: " The equitable distribution of the fruits of production."  One of the socialist philosophers was Karl Marx who brilliantly expounded the philosophy of socialism now known as Marxism which has become the most influential concepts among labor circles.  The publication of *Communist Manifesto* in 1848, socialism *"passed permanently"* into the tradition of Western Civilization. Karl Marx's famous line "Working men of al countries unite!" served as a rallying point for labor. The proletariat became more aware of their identity in the economic system. The workers began to make demands from their employers. It resulted in the enactment of labor laws which stipulated fixed working hours, universal education, better pay, old age pension, and better working conditions. The Filipinos were aware of these matters. Juan Luna asked for Rizal's advise on what to red to be inspired to paint.  In his letter, Luna informed Rizal that he was reading *Le Socialismo Contemporain* by E de Levalye, which is a compilation of the theories of Karl Marx, Lasalle, etc; Catholic socialism, the conservative, the evangelical, etc. **The Altered position of the Catholic Church in the 19^th^ Century.** The catholic church in Europe was a most powerful influential institution. The church has been identified with the monarchy and aristocracy since the medieval era.  The church therefore was considered an adversary of the young Republican states and the recently unified countries. The French viewed the church as a threat to their newly established republican state, and Bismarck of Germany considered the church as a threat to the unified people of the German Empire. In Spain, the liberals considered the church an enemy of reforms.  Other countries sought to curtail the church's influence, to break down its political power, and to destroy its traditional control over education. This movement was called "Anti-clericalism" Anti-clericalism gained strength in the 19th century not only for political reasons but also because of the materialistic preferences of the people generated by economic prosperity. The *Rerum* called upon the states to help labor and reiterated church support in the promotion of the welfare of labor but attacked Marxism. Rizal and other Filipino leaders were exposed to the necessary intellectual background and the conceptual framework to abstract their ideas of reforms in the Philippines. The economic prosperity, the strengthening of the bourgeoisie, the emerging power of the proletariat; the democratic and nationalistic thoughts of the great thinkers, and the flexibility of the church sent stimulating undercurrents in the Philippines which the Filipinos welcomed and the Spaniards could no longer ignore. Filipino now became aggressive in his struggle for his rights and activated its citizens into a revolution of change and economic adjustments. **The Philippines is Drawn within the Orbit of the World trade-** The beneficial effects of economic liberalism in Europe and the United States had finally convinced Spain to abandon mercantilism and reluctantly open the Philippines to world trade. Spain opened Philippine ports to foreign trade starting with Manila in 1834; followed by Sual, Iloilo, Zamboaga in 1855, Cebu in 1860, and Legaspi and Tacloban in 1873. These ports became more accessible to European vessels. The presence of foreign traders and their investments in the Philippines stimulated commercial life and agricultural production. The introduction of agricultural machinery and increased banking facilities encouraged opening of new farms.  Improved methods of cultivation and preparation of crops increased the volume of exports. the construction of better roads, railroads and bridges enhanced transportation and communication. Steam navigation, telephones and telegraphs and even cables gave added impetus  to economic progress. These developments encouraged social mobility and interaction among people thus facilitating closer understanding and unity. **The New Breed of Native Middle Class. ** These 19^th^ century economic and social stimuli effected  a marked improvement in the standard of living of small group if indios and mestizos who were engaged in commercial agriculture and trade. This group became the nucleus of a growing middle class. This time, the Philippine education began to share the liberal currents in Europe with the implementation of the Educational Reform decree of 1863 and Jesuits innovations at Ateneo. The decree offered the establishment of public primary schools and a normal school to train teachers for the primary grades. The Jesuits opened a secondary school and meteorological observatory subsidized by the government and had been influential in disseminating general primary education. Contacts with the social and political developments in Europe and the regular flow of liberal thoughts to the country was  inevitable after the opening of Suez Canal. Literature on democratic and nationalistic ideas found their way to the Philippines through traders, travelers, scholars, government officials and political refugees from Spain. These liberal ideas included equality before law; freedom of speech, the press, assembly and religion; protection of alienable rights; representation in the lawmaking body; and sovereignty of people. **Initial Response to the Nineteenth Century Challenges-** Even before the emergence of an active educated middle class which directly worked for reforms, Francisco "Balagtas" Baltazar (1788-1862) had already voiced his disgust in the prevailing social order through his literary pieces, particularly *Florante at Laura.* In his numerous literary works, Balagtas subtly portrayed the "social cancer"  of his time and earned the distinction of being the first Filipino artist with a social conscience. His now famous *awit Florante at Laura*, voiced his censure of the government, his impatience with Spanish abuses, and his love for liberty. His literary verse unmasked a corrupt government, a society ridden with vice where justice had been defiled, virtue betrayed and truth stiffled. He envisioned the liberation of the country from the despots and its ultimate unification. The first united move against racial discrimination was made by the native clergy with their demand for the right to administer parishes (the question of secularization).  The first to champion the cause of the native clergy was a Spanish mestizo, Father Pedro Pelaez, the ecclesiastical governor of the Philippines in 1862, who was influential in Manila and Madrid. His broad idealism had convinced him that the fight for justice was not a matter of blood and position but of sound values and principles. A brilliant educator, journalist and orator, Father Pelaez used the pulpit and the press to expose and criticize the rampant racial discrimination against the native clergy. He denounced the Spanish ecclesiastical authorities for denying Filipino clergy the right to administer Philippine parishes and for depriving them on holding positions in hierarchy. He appealed to Queen Isabela II of Spain for clerical equality while he dispatched articles expounding his crusade to newspapers. Father Pelaez submitted recommendations that were later to be embodied in the Educational Reform Decree of 1863.    Unfortunately, his fight for justice and racial equality ended  abruptly with his death at a disastrous earthquake that rocked the Philippines in 1863. Jose A. Burgos, a student of Father Pelaez continued his unfinished mission. Father Burgos was a Spanish mestizo who openly and eagerly worked for clerical equality. During the heated controversy over the secularization of parishes, attacks were levied against the late Father Pelaez, against the policies of Archbishop Gregorio Meliton Martinez, and against the qualifications of the Filipino clergy. These charges were published in *La Verdad*, a newspaper in Madrid. The accusations ranged from the ignorance and unreliability of the native clergy that made them unfit to administer the parishes, the injustices committed against the Spanish friars by Archbishop Martinez, to questions on the loyalty of the late Father Pelaez. Burgos\' much intense nationalism was expressed ion his defense of the much maligned Filipino clergy.  Father Burgos defended the liberal policies of Archbishop Martinez that attempted to give Filipino secular priests every opportunity for better training. Since Father Burgos believed that the superiority of a man depends on his education, he appealed to the noble people of Spain to give the Filipino clergy a chance to show their ability to equal the white men. **Futile Spanish Attempts to Initiate Reforms-** Sensing the prevalent social discontent, political insecurity and the growing anti-Spanish feelings in the Islands, Governors General Manuel Pavia (1854) and Carlos Ma de la Torre (1869-1871) warned the Spanish government  and suggested certain reforms. Governor Rafael de Izquierdo (1871-1873) blamed higher education as the motivating factor of all these agitations. He suggested the substitution of vocational instruction for university studies. He also sought to prohibit any further ordination of Filipino priests thus suggested that all native troops be replaced by Spanish soldiers. Fortunately for the Philippines, the Spanish government could not agree on policies to counteract the surging rise of nationalistic sentiments. In 1868, the mutiny of the Spanish fleet in Cadiz against the monarhcy mounted to revolution which deposed Queen Isabela II and a provisional government was set up by victorious liberals. That time, reforms occurred such as the grant of universal suffrage and recognition of freedom of conscience, the press, association and public assembly. The provisional government appointed General Carlos Ma de la Torre as Governor General of the Philippines. As the official representative of the liberal government in Spain De la Torre abolished the censorship of the press, fostered free political discussions,  and supported the secularization of parishes. His liberal attitude encourages the educated Filipinos to form organizations that discussed and campaigned for political reforms and secularization of parishes. The most active organizers were priests and laymen such as Father Jose Burgos, Mariano Gomez and Jacinto Zamora; Augusto Mendoza, Jose Ma Basa, Antonio Ma Regidor and Joaquin Pardo de Tavera. Daring students at the conservative University of Santo Tomas organized Juventud Escolar liberal (Liberal Young Students) led by Felipe Buencamino. Some of known members were Paciano Rizal, Mariano Alejndrino, Gregorio Sanciano, Basilio Teodoro and others who would be actively involved in the Propaganda Movement of 1880's and 1890's. Studenst asked for appointement of better professors, and expansion of education as in Spain, and the secularization of higher education. The demands were legitimate but the Spanish government branded them as subversive and ordered the arrest of Buencamino and even others who were not involved. Governor de la Torre tried to curtail the abuses of alcaldes mayores and provincial military governors. Realizing the urgent need for reforms, De la Torre formed a junta to study  measures for the welfare of the colony. Before he could implement the suggested reforms, however, the liberal regime in Spain was deposed by the conservatives. Governor De la Torre was replaced by Governor Izquierdo who echoed conservatism. Izquierdo restored strict censorship of the press, prohibited political discussions, and put a stop to secularization of parishes. The political atmosphere was charged with grave unrest. One example of unrest that erupted into violence was the Cavite Mutiny. On January 20, 1872, 40 men of the marine infantry and 22 men of the artillery attacked Fort San Felipe in Cavite. 150 native soldiers and workers at the arsenal later joined the mutineers. They resented the governor's policy of curtailing some of their privileges of exemption from forced labor or paying heavy tribute to the government. Led by Sergeant La Madrid, the mutineers futilely waited for the reinforcements from the Seventh Infantry guarding Cavite and sympathizers from Manila. **Filipino Sentiment of Nationality Aroused-** This local incident was magnified by the Spanish authorities into a "national rebellion" to justify mass reprisals.  The arrests of liberal intellectuals was immediately ordered. Among those arrested were natives and mestizos who were most vocal in suggesting reforms during de la Torre regime. All the prisoners- priests, laymen, businessmen, soldiers were thrown into a common prison cell to await trial. They were accused  of "wanting to establish here a republic in conspiracy with the republican partisans in Spain." All were given hurried trials, and summary convictions and punishments were meted out to all groups.  The military groups sentenced the three priests to die by *garrote.* The efforts of Archbishop Gregorio Meliton Martinez to save them proved futile. The rest of the accused were either exiled to Marianas or were sentenced to imprisonment and hard labor for eight to ten years Father Burgos and Zamora's claim to innocence was unheeded. Eighty four year old Father Gomez said nothing in his defense for he knew it would be useless to change the minds of those who condemned them even before the trial. Father Zamora, dazed with shock quietly  awaited his end. Father Burgos, cried out in protest; "But what crime have I committed? Shall I die in this manner? Is there no justice on earth?  This spontaneous show of respect and sympathy for the victims was interpreted by the Spanish members of the crowd as a signal for rebellion, they sought refuge in Intramuros. The authorities declared the Cavite affair a closed incident. The vindictive fiasco made no distinction of social class or status for imprisonment. Eventually a peaceful but vigorous campaign called the Propaganda Movement was launched. **The Propaganda Movement** **Laying the Groundwork-** After eight years of relative peace and quiet, the historical drama now unfolds in Madrid (1880) where intellectual and political ferment had been long in progress. Two young Doctor of Laws, Pedro Paterno and Gregorio Sanciano, both chinese mestizos endowed with nationalist sentiments. Their literary works seemed to have anticipated the dream of their compatriots and set pattern of action  and themes for the other nationalists to follow. These two intellectual were soon joined by Graciano Lopez Jaena, Jose Rizal, Pedro de Govantes and Eduardo de Lete. Dr. Paterno published his first literary work which was a collection of verses entitled *Sampaguitas* (1880). He attempted to project to the public a Filipino national personality through the works of a Filipino. Dr. Gregorio Sanciano wrote on a more serious theme: economic reforms to improve political administration. His book E Progreso de Filipinas (1881), analyzed the revenue system and concluded that the inequality of the Philippine tax structure had deterred the economic growth of the Philippines. Dr. Sanciano also characterized the taxation system as irregular, full of privileges, inequalities and injustices. He criticized the tribute system. He warned that as in the age of barbarism "the tribute that was enforced by force ended also by force."  Expanding Sanciano's theory on taxation, he claimed that a citizen should contribute to support the state according to his ability, but he should not be compelled to pay tribute and the like if he owns nothing. He added that the "amount of taxes should be adjusted to the value of the property of the citizen and for the more property he has the greater is the security service he needs." He also proposed the assimilation of the Philippines by Spain. He cited the tobacco monopoly and analyzed its brutalizing consequences. He pointed out that trade had become unprofitable to the indios. Further, the delays were caused by  the petty exactions on trade by Spanish officials. The tobacco monopoly was abolished and the cedula personal was required of both the Filipinos and Spaniards. Forced labor services were reduced from 45 to 15 days and required of both Filipinos and Spaniards except those who paid a certain amount of taxes.  The works of Paterno and Sanciano clearly summed up the ideas that were to recur in the political and intellectual activities of the propagandists for the next 15 years. They asserted an image of dignity and identity as members of the Spanish nation by working for their right to administrative and economic reforms in order to correct existing prejudices and anomalies. **Unifying Forces During the Unorganized Years-**  Spontaneous expressions of nationalistic sentiments with no formal organization to coordinate and direct their activities characterized the early stages of the *Propaganda Movement* in Spain. Social ferment in Spain favored the publication of liberal newspapers. The most sympathetic to the cause of the Filipinos during the early years was Los Dos Mundos where Graciano Lopez Jaena and Pedro de Govantes were staff members. They were the most active during those early years.  Events that served to bring them closer together were: the announcement of the abolition of the tobacco monopoly in 1881; the victory of Juan Luna and Felix Resurrection Hidalgo at the Exposicion de Bellas Artes in Madrid in 1884; the assault made against the dignity of the Filipinos as a race by Pablo Feced ("Quioquiap") in 1886; and by the management of the Exposicion Filipinas in 1887; and lastly, their desire to publish their own newspaper. The announcement of the abolition of tobacco monolpy was an occasion to celebrate. Filipinos expressed their gratitude to the overseas Minister, Fernando de Leon Castillo.  The announcement meant the end of Spanish exploitation in tobacco production and distribution. The occasion was followed early the next year with the forming of a organization called the Circulo Hispano-Filipino led by Juan Atayde, a Spaniard born in the Philippines. It published a short-lived newspaper, the Revista del Circulo Hispano-Filipino. By this time (1886) the spirit of and pride of the young propagandists had been so stirred that they published a newspaper in March 1887. As a propaganda newspaper, Espana en Filipinas advocated economic and administrative reforms fro the Philippines, rebutted Quioquiap's stinging articles; and strongly argued against the, blatant exploitation of the Igorots and the Muslims at the Exposicion de Filipinas in May 1887.  The propagandists accused the Exposicion management of misrepresenting the Filipinos and misleading the Spanish authorities so that reform would not be granted.  The Espana en Filipinas bowed out after one year  and four months of voicing Filipino sentiments and aspirations. While all these activities were in progress, Rizal's Noli Me Tangere was published in March 1887 which added fuel to heated arguments between the pro and anti propagandists. Father Salvador Font lashed at the book, claiming that it evoked memories of Cavite and sought to overthrow " the yoke of oppression" and he recommend that it should be totally banned from importation, reprint and circulation in the Islands. Del Pilar wrote a defense of the Noli emphasizing that Father Font was not qualified to criticize the book because the friar himself admitted that the book offended him.  Rizal wrote "to criticize for the betterment of the Philippines, because he loved Spain."  Del Pilar observed that "if it is true that the state of affairs is staining the brilliant history of Spanish institutions in the east, why should this man be censured?" Del Pilar posed other questions, thus: If the observation is untrue, if the friar on the contrary rises to the aid of the government, if he favors their projects, why are there so many obstacles in the work of progress in the Philippines, so longed for by both rulers and subjects. The attacks and the defense of the Noli gave the Philippines further publicity in the Spanish press through the pamphlets issued by both sides. The propagandists had an opportunity to reiterate issues and the urgent need for reforms. **Revival of Activities in the Philippines-** As the drive for reforms in Spain gained momentum, the nationalist-reformists in the Philippines were busy with their own plans. The local strategy in organizing the propaganda work was performed by Marcelo H. Del Pilar. Del Pilar exhorted the young men to join student organizations. A lawyer by profession and a newspaperman-crusader by choice, Del Pilar reached out to the masses in their own dialect. His *duplos* and essays which satirized local conditions were widely circulated in Tagalog provinces.  Assisted by Basilio Teodoro, he published and edited the short-lived Diariong Tagalog (1882) censuring the friar's despotism in the Philippines. Anti-clericalism heavily influenced propaganda activities in the country. Del Pilar secretly organized the Comite (Junta) de Propaganda.  The small but active group used Manila and Malolos as centers of their operations. Working closely with Del Pilar were his brother-in-law Deodato Arelano, Pedro Serrano Laktaw, a Filipino priest Don Rafael Canlapan, Manuel Crisostomo, Basilio Teodoro, Jose Ramos, Doroteo Cortes and Gregorio Santillan. Jose Ramos took care of their distribution through his store La Gran Bretana. The subtle support extended by liberal-minded Governor General Emilio Terrero (1885-88), acting Civil Governor of Manila, by Benigno Quiroga, Director of Civil Administration, and by local Spanish officials such as Julio Galindo, local Commander of the Civil Guard, and by Manuel Gomez Florio, Civil Governor of Bulacan, boosted their morale and made them aggressive especially in their anti-friar moves. Another incident that shows the unity of the natives involved a government project to open an orphanage and a school or arts and trades by the Agustinian fathers.  The anti-friar activities reached a climax with the petition of 1888 led by Doroteo Cortes and Jose Ramos. The petition accused the friars of various crimes and demanded the expulsion of the friars and the exile of the Archbishop. Another example of agitation for the protection of Filipino rights was the Kalamba agrarian petition of 1888. T protect themselves from arbitrary tax impositions and other forms of vexation by the Dominica estate managers, the tenants petitioned the government that either their agrarian relations with the Dominican estate-be governed by a formal contract or that the lands be sold to those who have made them tillable under government auspices and according to a standard that may be fixed. The petitioners were sued by the estate managers and ejection proceedings were initiated.  The lower court and the Royal Audiencia decided against the petitioners. Governor Valeriano Weyler, successors of Terrero , used force to suppress the disturbances. Del Pilar was ordered arrested but he managed to slip out of the country before the order was executed.   Mariano Ponce continued his medical education in Spain in 1887. Having been a student-reformist while in the Philippines, he found time for propaganda work in between his studies and finally graduated in 1889. He led the group in pushing through the plan of publishing their official organ which was to be called La Solidaridad. **Consolidation of Propaganda Activities:\ The Final Push For Reforms** **Filipino Nationalists Formally Organized-**  Although they had carried on the crusade for reforms in Spain since 1880, the Filipino nationalists did not have a formal organization to coordinate their activities until 1889. The *La Solidaridad* society was organized in Barcelona on New Year's eve. The following officers were chosen: Galicano Apacible, president; Graciano Lopez Jaena, vice president; Manuel Santa, secretary; Mariano Ponce, treasurer; Jose Ma Panganiban, auditor; and Rizal, honorary president. A few days later, another group in Madrid inaugurated the Asociation Hispano-Filipina on 12 January 1889. The society was composed of Filipinos and Spaniards aimed at working for specific reforms for our country. Its officers were Don Miguel Morayta, president; Rivas Moreno, vice president; Donimador Gomez, secretary, and Antonio Luna, treasurer.  Del Pilar joined the group and the first issue of La Solidaridad came out in 15 of February, 1899. It was financed mainky by Pablo Rianzares Bautista and some members of the Comite de Propaganda in the Philippines. The paper was a modest fortnightly of 12-16 pages the size of a current weekly magazine.  The editorship was first offered to Rizal but he declined because of being busy annotating Antonio de Morga's *Sucesos de los Islas Filipinas* and researching on Philippine history. Lopez Jaena who was interested in editorship was finally selected. Its first issue announced its aims: to spread and defend the ideals of democracy, and to work for and promote progress in politics, science, arts and letters, commerce, agriculture and industry. Lopez Jaena criticized the inefficiency of the Spanish two-party system, lamented the indifference of the people to civic projects, - and national responsibility and dealt with the problems of the government, especially the rising prices of commodities. After nine months of publication, Del Pilar took over the editorship and the editorial office was transferred to Madrid.  Active contributors of *La Solidaridad* were Mariano Ponce, Jose Ma Panganiban, Antonio Luna, Jose Rizal and staunch supporter to the Filipino cause, Ferdinand Blumentritt. They used pen names to protect their families in the Philippines from persecution. Rizal used Dimas Alang and Laong Laan; Del Pilar, Plaridel; Lopez Jaena, Diego Laura; Jose Ma Panganiban, Jomapa; Antonio Luna, Tga-ilog; Ponce, Naning, Tigbalang or Kalipulako. The paper was banned from the Philippines but copies surreptitiously reached the country for the delightful reading of patriotic Filipinos. **Reforms They Worked for-** Picking up from the nationalistic trend started by Fathers Pelaez and Burgos in the Philippines from the idealism of Sanciano, Lopez Jaena and Pedro de Govantes in Spain, the writer of Las Solidaridad shared the common theme to work for equality so that the rights and dignity of the Filipinos would be guaranteed and respected. The reformists asked for the assimilation of the Philippines as a regular province of Spain. The elevation of the Philippines to a Spanish province would entitle us to all the rights and privileges of Spanish citizens. Other reforms that they sought were: the extension of peninsular law to the Philippines, judicial reforms, integrity in administration, Appointment of Filipino priests to administer parishes, and free governmental participation. To promote economic development , they also asked for freedom in trade and industry. Supplementing La Solidaridad were the play up of news stories in the Spanish democratic press given by the liberal journalists. They continued to expose, criticize and satirize the intolerable conditions in the Philippines caused by inept and corrupt Spanish administration. Much publicized was the presentation to the Cortes of a bill which provided for elected deputies to represent the Philippines. The first representation was made in 1891 by Deputy Calvo Munoz, a former associate of Del Pilar in the Diarrong Tagalog.    Manuel Becerra supported the bill but discussion of the measure was postponed and before the body could act on it  the Sagasta government fell from power.  Del Pilar appealed to the Masonic lodges whose members secured 7,000 signatures for the petition asking for parliamentary representation. **Glimpses of Propaganda Literature-** Apart from news items an regular columns in la Solidaridad and the Spanish liberal press favoring the cause of reforms in the Philippines, the reformists wrote historical and social essays for their organ or for printing as pamphlets. They also wrote novels and novelettes to enhance their motives. Mariano Ponce, managing editor and a regular contributor of La Solidaridad, was the biographer, researcher and bibliographer of the movement. His biographies of great Filipinos were serialized in La Solidaridad. His historical essays stressed the importance of education, and analyzed the grievances of the country.  The Filipino desire for freedom of the press was consistently stressed in essays and speeches. Jose Ma Panganiban pointed out that a government could better understand and interpret the aspirations of its people if freedom of the press were granted. He also criticized the deficiencies of higher education in the Philippines. The contributions of Antonio Luna to La Solidaridad were *Noche Buena*, a biographical sketch that depicted actual life in the Philippines; *La Maestra de mi Pueblo*, which pointed out the defects of the educational system for women; and a play called *Todo por el Estomago*, tat satirized the biased Spanish method of colonization and taxation policies. Rizal ridiculed Father Font and did not spare the friars in his pamphlet, *Por Telefono*. Other criticisms of the Noli were those of Father Jose Rodriguez who published a series of eight pamphlets. These were refuted by Rizal's satirical pamphlet, *La Vision del Fray Rodriguez*.  *La Solidaridad's* issue of 31 March, 1890 published another defense written by Father Vicente Garcia under the pen name of V Caraig. Blumentritt also critique Noli, he presumed that Noli would be to the credit of Spanish Colonization. Blumentritt summed up the cause of almost blind hatred of the Spaniards for the Noli: it hurt Spanish national pride to know that an indio had boldly exposed in his novel representatives of the chosen race who placed their personal interests above their honor before their duty towards the state. Rizal spoken in the spirit of truth and honesty.  The most compelling book of Del Pilar  was the *La Soberania Monacal en Filipinas* in which he set forth his basic reform in the Philippines: expulsion of the friars to eliminate the obstacles to progress and happiness in the Philippines. Del Pilar described friars in the Philippines as a privileged and powerful group whose powers interfered with the political, economic, social life, and education of the people. In fact they were the arbiters of Filipino misfortunes and their "impeccability" had become a "dogma". Lopez Jaena was known as the orator of the group. He utilized his eloquence and natural oratory and held his audience spellbound as he expounded on the necessity of granting reforms for the Filipinos. In his oratorical homage to Luna for having painted "The Battle of Lepanto" that won first prize at the Barcelona Exposition. He defended the Filipinos from insults and sarcastic remarks levied by unjust critics who were unaware of the conditions in the Philippines. Referring to the genius, glories and triumphs of Luna, Jaena confessed that he could not help  but refer to the Philippines  as "that beautiful corner of the Orient." In May 1891, Jaena reacted to a racially discriminatory policy of the civil governor in Pangasinan where all the Filipinos were required to take off their hats whenever they met a white Spaniard. His criticism wanted to emphasize the dignity and right of an indio. Rizal, the most scholarly of the group. researched  among the Filipiniana collection of the British museum in London, He wrote his principal essays for La Solidaridad. His annotation of *Suceso*s revealed the extent and painstaking research he had made on the history of the Philippines.   He referred to well known historians and writers such as Fathers Chirino and Colin, and San Agustin, Vidal, Buzeta, De los Rios, Grau, and others. One is jolted back to 19^th^ century reality with Rizal's annotation remarks: "The same cannot be said today. The government in print and in words tried to educate the Filipinos but indeed... it foments ignorance placing education in the hands of the friars who are accused by Spaniards, Filipinos and foreigners wanting the brutalization of the country. " Morga praised the natives as  "very intelligent people." Rizal corroborated this by citing the same observations of two authors, the Jesuits Colin and Chirino, who wrote separately praising native intelligence that merited the promoted of some clerks to  "official of the office of public accountants and secretaries of kingdom.  To these claims Rizal commented that even before the coming of the Spaniards, the natives had schools where they learned to read and write in Tagalog in which all of them were skilled. Rizal laments that the child loses two or three years in school reading and writing language he does not understand while quite often neither does he read nor write correctly.   Philippine culture may have defects as all other cultures have but Spanish colonization had aggravated these. Rizal cited the ancient Filipino treatment of their slaves compared to the inhuman Spanish treatment of the workers.  Pedro Alejandro Paterno was one of the pioneer Filipino propagandists who served the cause of the movement with his historical researches.  **Masonry and the Propaganda Movement-**  Not satisfied with their research, journalistic, literary, and oratorical feats the propagandists joined the brotherhood of Masons. The liberal ideas of the masons, their fearless attacks on the government and the church, attracted the attention of the propagandists. On April 1 1889, Lopez Jaena organized the Lodge *Revolucion* in Barcelona to bring together all Filipino masons, with its abolition a year later, the Lodge *La Solidaridad* was established in Madrid to become the center of propaganda activities in Spain. Accordingly. On 6 January 1891, the Lodge *Nilad* was secretly established in Manila by Pedro Serrano Laktaw. A year later, it was recognized by the parent lodge *Gran Oriente Espano*l in Spain. **Counter Propaganda Moves-**  The exposes, satires and criticisms written against the Spaniards stimulated varied reactions among which was sympathy for the Spanish authorities in the Philippines. Wenceslao E Retana, one of the founders  and editor of La Politica de Espana en Filipinas. Using the pseudonym "Desenganos," Retana attacked the propagandists personally. He described them as incapable, ignorant, indolent, always craving for more rights, and never satisfied. In his two volumes of *Recuerdos de Filipinas*, the Spanish writer remembered the Filipinos as childish and culturally backward. Vicenter Barrantes wrote about the defects of the Philippine Theater in his *El Teatro Tagalo*, which provokes Rizal and Blumentritt into endless discussions. Among the counter propagandists, were the friars. Their newspaper was *La Voz de Espana*. Father Jose Rodriguez wrote a series of tracts entitled *Questiones de Sumo Interes* -which attempted to discredit the works of Rizal and other propagandists. Father Francisco Rivas published two pamphlets against the reforms proposed by Minister of Colonies Segismundo Moret to liberalize the Spanish administration and to secularize education in the Philippines. Father Miguel Lucio Bustamante, in his *Si Tandang Basiong Macunat*, ridiculed the people for aspiring to learn the Spanish language when they could hardly perform their manual tasks satisfactorily. **Disappointing reforms-** The collective efforts of the propagandists and their sympathizers yielded minor reforms such as the Provincial Reform of 1886, the extension of the Spanish Civil Code to the Philippines, followed by the Code of Commerce, the passage of the Becerra Law providing for the right to organize city governments, and the reforms in municipal administration embodied in the Maura Law of 1883. The Maura Law was a fine piece of municipal legislation but it came three years before the outbreak of the Revolution and was too late for implementation. Without a guarantee of their human and civil rights, the Penal code, Civil code, and the Code of Commerce were useless to the Filipinos. The provincial reform of 1886 came too late to correct the age-old defects of the colonial system.  **Problems of the Propagandists-** The Filipino nationalists could not wait for Sprain to grant the reforms they wanted. Time was running against them. Their inadequate financial resources, differences of opinions, and personal problems began to weigh heavily. The propagandist's financial difficulties forced Rizal to comment that the majority talked a great deal but were reluctant to help finance the movement. Dominador Gomez and Pablo Rianzares financed the *La Solidaridad*. The subscriptions of the masons were insufficient.  The government stepped up its surveillance and deported propaganda supporters, making it difficult for them to send financial aid to Del Pilar and those who remained with him to the last days of *La Solidaridad*. The widening rift among the propagandists was aggravated by their personal problems, their depleted financial conditions, their homesickness and concern for their families in the Philippines.  The most ardent nationalists of the group- Rizal, Del Pilar and Lopez Jaena were forced to stop their activities temporarily. **Rizal attempts to carry on the Propaganda in the Philippines-** Rizal came home with the hope of working for the reforms on Philippine soil. Shortly after his arrival in Manila on 26 June 1892, he organized La Liga Filipina on 3 July 1892. Its objectives according to constitution were: the unification of the whole archipelago into- none compact; vigorous and homogenous body; mutual protection in every want and necessity; defense against all the violence and injustice; encouragement of education, agriculture and commerce; and the study and application of reforms. Its motto: "One like all." For administrative purposes, the League was divided into three councils: Supreme Council, Provincial Council and Popular Council. Its constitution defined the duties and rights of its members and officers, how its funds were to be invested, and other general policies. Its constitution implied that the League was a national society which required its members to assume a symbolic name- their real names known only to their respective chiefs. The League required its members: to obey completely and promptly every order emanating from the provincial council or chief, preserve the most absolute; Secrecy pertaining to the decisions of the council; inform the League of whatever they learned that had reference to Liga Filipina.  The members were expected to work as one body, vigilant in the protection of their rights and dignity, and united in fighting violence and injustice, especially the poor shall be supported in his right against any powerful person. La Liga was shortlived because of the exile of Rizal to Dapitan in 1892. Rizal's last desperate attempt to carry on the Propaganda movement in the Philippines had failed. La Solidaridad folded up for lack of funds on 15 November 1895. Lopez Jaena died because of Tuberculosis two months later; Del Pilar died on the same disease, poor and hungry ,on 4 July 1896; And Rizal was executed at the end of the same year. The rest of the propagandists dispersed. However they did not labor in vain. Their work inflamed the quiet hostility of the masses against the Spaniards. But when reforms did not come, their hope turned into despair.  Nineteenth century democratic and nationalistic ideals had so permeated Philippine society that Filipino passions and turned to rebellion. Led by Andres Bonifacio, a small band of determined and persevering men formed the nucleus of the Katipunan, a revolutionary society that rekindled the people's determination to fight for freedom and happiness. Political Independence was recognized on 4 July 1946, half a century after the death of Jaena, Del Pilar, and Rizal, and after Bonifacio inspired the Katipunan to rise in rebellion in the name of freedom. We had at last realized emancipation. **1. Foundations of Indigenous Culture** - **Historical Development**: Indigenous culture developed from early settlers such as Malays, who introduced technologies like metalworking, weaving, agriculture, and the use of animals. - **Cultural Contributions**: Early settlers fostered trade relations and developed social norms, language, writing, and systems of governance and religion. **2. Spanish Unification and Colonial Influence** - **Political Unification**: Spain unified various Filipino communities under a centralized government, introducing taxation, currency systems, and Catholicism. - **Acculturation**: The Spanish imposition of \"divide and rule\" created division among Filipinos but also began the blending of indigenous and colonial cultures. **3. Rising Nationalism and Early Revolts** - **Revolts Against Spanish Rule**: Driven by exploitation (forced labor, taxes, discrimination), many uprisings took place, including those led by Diego Silang and Apolinario de la Cruz. These revolts often failed due to lack of national leadership and unity. - **Religious Tensions**: Conflicts arose over the control of land and religious rights, contributing to a growing resentment against Spanish friars and officials. **4. Economic and Political Influences of the 19th Century** - **Industrialization Impact**: Developments in Europe, such as the rise of industrialism and democratic ideals, brought awareness to the Philippines, especially after opening to world trade in 1834. - **Opening of Ports**: Ports in Manila, Iloilo, Cebu, and others attracted foreign traders, boosting local agriculture, trade, and interaction with liberal ideas from abroad. **5. Emergence of the Middle Class** - **Middle Class Development**: Increased trade led to the rise of a Filipino middle class who were educated in liberal ideas, further fueled by the Suez Canal opening, which facilitated exposure to global ideas. - **Educational Reforms**: The 1863 decree introduced public education, allowing more Filipinos access to knowledge, promoting a sense of unity and national identity. **6. Propaganda Movement Beginnings** - **Literature as Resistance**: Writers like Francisco Baltazar (Balagtas) used literature to subtly criticize Spanish abuses, exemplified by his famous work, *Florante at Laura*. - **Clerical Equality Efforts**: Native priests, led by figures like Fathers Pedro Pelaez and Jose Burgos, fought for equal rights in the clergy, laying groundwork for more organized movements advocating Filipino rights.