Chapter 7: Definitions of Abnormality PDF

Chapter 7 Definitions of Abnormality: Deviation from statistical norms: Abnormal if it’s rare or unusual (e.g., height or mood extremes). Deviation from social norms: Abnormal if it breaks societal rules (but context, culture, and norms are key). Personal distr...

Chapter 7 Definitions of Abnormality: Deviation from statistical norms: Abnormal if it’s rare or unusual (e.g., height or mood extremes). Deviation from social norms: Abnormal if it breaks societal rules (but context, culture, and norms are key). Personal distress: Abnormal if it causes the individual distress, though not always. Dysfunction: Abnormal if it disrupts daily life, self-care, or relationships (harmful dysfunction). What is Abnormal? 1. Statistical Deviation: o Most traits fall under a bell curve (e.g., height or mood). o Simple definition, but "average" doesn’t always mean "normal" or "good." 2. Social Norm Deviation: o Behavior shaped by social norms; breaking these norms = abnormal. o Consider context, culture, and changing norms. o Some behavior, even if abnormal, is voluntary and not a mental illness. 3. Personal Distress: o Thoughts, feelings, or actions must cause distress to be abnormal. o But not all distressing behavior indicates a disorder. 4. Dysfunction: o Behavior that harms or interferes with daily functioning or social relations. o Takes time for dysfunction to appear, but it’s a sign of abnormality. What is Abnormality? No single definition fits all. Judging abnormality involves considering all four models.  Case example: A client sees auras—is this abnormal? Diagnosis: Purpose: Guides treatment, educates, communicates between professionals, and enables valid research. DSM-5: Descriptive and categorical, organized by lifespan and symptom presentation (e.g., anxiety, bipolar). DSM-5 Overview: First published in 1952; many updates, especially in DSM-III and DSM-5. Organization: Based on symptoms, qualifiers (duration, distress), disqualifiers (other disorders, medical conditions), and specifiers (subtype, onset). Advantages: Atheoretical, clear criteria, common language. Disadvantages: Criteria cutoffs, cultural/gender bias, limited objectivity. Controversies with DSM-5: Diagnostic overexpansion: Defining more conditions as disorders. Transparency issues: Lack of clarity in decision-making. Working group membership: Concerns about who was involved. Field trial failures: Problems with testing. Cost: DSM is expensive. Chapter 8 Assessment: Definition: The process of collecting information to make informed decisions, integrating data, clinical expertise, and patient preferences. Evidence-Based Assessment: 1. Based on research/scientifically supported theories.  2. Disorder/problem-specific. 3. Uses strong, reliable psychometric measures. 4. Involves evaluating the accuracy and usefulness of the assessment results. Key Purposes of Assessment: 1. Screening: Identifying possible issues early. 2. Diagnosis/Case Conceptualization: Understanding the problem and forming a diagnosis. 3. Prognosis/Predictions: Predicting future outcomes or risk factors. 4. Treatment Planning: Deciding on the course of action for intervention. 5. Treatment Monitoring: Tracking progress during treatment. 6. Evaluating Outcome: Assessing the effectiveness of treatment. Reliability: Test-Retest: Consistency of results over time. Inter-Rater: Agreement between different observers or raters. Internal Consistency: How well the items of a test measure the same construct. Validity: Construct Validity: 1. Face Validity: Does it seem to measure what it’s supposed to? 2. Content Validity: Does it cover the full range of the construct? 3. Convergent Validity: Does it relate to other measures of the same construct? 4. Discriminant Validity: Is it distinct from unrelated constructs? Criterion Validity: 1. Predictive Validity: Can it predict future outcomes?  2. Concurrent Validity: Does it agree with other measures taken at the same time? Generalizability: How well do the results apply across different groups or settings? Treatment Sensitivity: Can the assessment detect changes due to treatment? Incremental Validity: Does it provide information beyond what is already known? Initial Client Contact: Rapport: Essential for building a good patient-professional relationship. o Trust and Cooperation: Listening skills and eliciting information are key to establishing rapport. Purpose of Initial Assessment: o Determine why the patient seeks help. o Decide if the agency or psychologist can meet the patient's needs. Interview Types: 1. Structured Interviews: o A set series of questions, presented in a standardized order with strict rules for following up. o Benefits: High reliability/validity, comprehensive, minimizes bias, good for comparing clients. o Limitations: Less flexible, may hinder rapport, time-consuming, may miss unique details. 2. Unstructured Interviews: o More open-ended and flexible, allowing for greater rapport and exploration of the client’s history. o Benefits: High flexibility, builds rapport, quicker, explores unique client details.  o Limitations: Poor reliability/validity, more prone to interviewer bias, harder to compare between clients. Chapter 9 Who Can Administer a Psychological Test? Different tests require experience and training for both administration and interpretation. Challenges to this: o Lawyers o "Test-prep" companies o Government Types of Cognitive Tests: 1. Intelligence Tests: Measure general mental ability. 2. Aptitude Tests: Assess specific mental abilities, predictive of future performance. 3. Achievement Tests: Focus on mastery of knowledge or past learning. 4. Neuropsychological Tests: Diagnostic tests that assess brain functioning. Intelligence Tests: What is Intelligence? Intelligence can be broadly defined in different ways according to various theories. Factor Theories of Intelligence: 1. Spearman: Intelligence is a single factor (g) – general intelligence. 2. Thurstone: Intelligence is made up of many specific factors (s). 3. Cattell’s Two-Factor Theory:  o Fluid Ability: Genetically based potential or capacity. o Crystallized Ability: Culture-based learning or acquired knowledge. Hierarchical Factor Theories: Cattell-Horn-Carroll Model: Intelligence consists of both specific abilities (s) and general intelligence (g), arranged in a hierarchy. Theories of Intelligence: 1. Information Processing Theories: o Focus on how people solve problems moment by moment. o Example: Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory (1985) includes: ▪ Componential (analytical thinking), ▪ Experiential (creative thinking), and ▪ Contextual (practical thinking). 2. Neuropsychological Theories: o Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences: Intelligence is linked to specific parts of the brain, suggesting different types of abilities such as linguistic, spatial, musical, etc. Conclusions on Intelligence Theories: No universally accepted definition of intelligence. Most North American intelligence tests are based on hierarchical factor theories and information processing theories. Intelligence Testing – Key Components: 1. Full Scale IQ: A general score derived from the following subscales: o Verbal Comprehension (vocabulary, similarities, information). o Perceptual Reasoning (block design, matrix reasoning, visual puzzles).  o Working Memory (digit span, arithmetic). o Processing Speed (coding, symbol search). 2. Deviation IQ: A standardized score comparing an individual's performance to that of same-aged peers. Wechsler Intelligence Scales: 1. WPPSI-IV: Ages 2.6 – 7.7 years. 2. WISC-IV: Ages 6 – 16 years. 3. WAIS-IV: Ages 16 – 90 years. Key Point: Tests must be administered in a standardized way, as any deviation can influence results. Factors affecting results include: o Psychologist factors, o Situational factors, o Client factors. Scientific Merit of Intelligence Tests: Reliability: Consistency of results. Validity: Tests are valid when they accurately measure intelligence as defined in North American contexts. Cultural Fairness: Intelligence tests may be biased toward North American cultural concepts, potentially disadvantaging those from other cultural backgrounds. IQ Score Considerations: IQ ≠ Intelligence: IQ scores estimate general intellectual ability, but they are not a direct measure of intelligence.  More than IQ: The pattern of strengths and weaknesses in the results is often more informative for diagnosing learning disorders or attention difficulties. IQ and Success: IQ scores have been linked to educational and occupational success, but other factors contribute to overall success. Chapter 10 Definition of Personality Personality: A consistent pattern of behavior and thinking across time and contexts that differentiates individuals. Power of the Situation: Behavior varies across situations but tends to remain stable in similar contexts over time. Theories of Personality: State vs. Trait Trait: Enduring characteristics that are relatively constant across situations. State: Temporary temperament that changes depending on the situation. o Trait = how a person generally is. o State = how a person temporarily changes in response to an event. Trait Theory Goal: To characterize individuals by identifying underlying basic traits. o Allport: Identified 18,000 words referring to different personality traits. o Cattell’s 16 Factor Theory: Developed a 16 Personality Factor Questionnaire (16 PF). Eysenck’s "PEN" Theory: Psychoticism: Aggressive/antisocial vs. warm/agreeable.  Extraversion: Sociable/outgoing vs. introverted. Neuroticism: Emotionally stable vs. unstable. o Questionnaire: Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ). Costa & McCrae’s 5 Factor Theory: Questionnaire: NEO-PI-3, which measures the Big Five personality traits: o Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism. Objective Tests (Based on Trait Theory) Objective Tests: Self-report questionnaires with fixed response options (e.g., true/false). o Advantages: Economical, reliable, valid. o Disadvantages: Requires self-knowledge, may lose unique information, susceptible to self-presentation bias. Psychodynamic Personality Theory Freud's Theory: Personality is driven by three forces: o Id: Instinctual needs, driven by the Pleasure Principle (“if it feels good, do it”). o Ego: Satisfies the Id’s needs in a socially acceptable way, following the Reality Principle. o Superego: Guides behavior based on morals and ideals. Defense Mechanisms: Used by the Ego to reduce anxiety from conflicts between the Id and Superego. o Projection: Attributing one’s own thoughts/feelings to others. o Basis of Projective Tests, like the Rorschach Inkblot Test and Thematic Apperception Test (TAT). Projective Tests Advantages: Difficult to fake responses, can explore hidden meanings with the client. Disadvantages: Unstructured, subjective interpretation, low reliability/validity, time-consuming. Broad Mental Health Questionnaires 1. MMPI-2/MMPI-A: o 10 clinical scales for abnormal behavior, 4 validity scales. o Based on Empirical Criterion Keying Approach. o Moderate reliability and validity; complicated interpretation; dated concepts. 2. PAI-2/PAI-A: o 11 clinical scales, 4 validity scales, 2 interpersonal scales, 5 treatment orientation scales. o Developed using a Content Construction Approach. o Excellent reliability and validity. Symptom-Specific Questionnaires Focused, shorter, and cost-effective. Useful for monitoring progress or outcomes. o Examples: Beck Depression Inventory, Achenbach System (CBCL, YSR), DASS, HADS. Behavioral Assessment Focuses on interactions between situations and behaviors to drive change. Does not assess underlying traits or cognitive function. Goal: Identify target behaviors and factors influencing them. Behavioral Assessment Tools Observation: Primary technique. o Naturalistic Observation: Observing behavior in the client's natural environment (e.g., home, school). ▪ Challenges: Infrequent behaviors, lack of control, and potential client reactance. Improving Reliability and Validity in Observations: 1. Operationalize behavior (e.g., define "aggression"). 2. Train observers. 3. Use observation record forms. 4. Be aware of error and consider ecological validity. Strengths of Behavioral Assessment: Provides valuable info on antecedents and consequences of behavior. Uses systematic and precise methods. Multiple methods over time, informing interventions or serving as interventions themselves. Limitations: Some methods (e.g., naturalistic observation) can be impractical (time-intensive, costly). Can’t always guarantee accurate representation of behavior due to factors like reactance.