306 Exam 1 Study Guide Ch 1-4 PDF

Chapter 1 What is abnormal psychology -​ Studies behaviors that are atypical or unexpected -​ No definitive threshold exists between normal and abnormal behavior Continuum model of abnormality -​ We look at human behavior on a continuum model -​ It is influenced by context, factors...

Chapter 1 What is abnormal psychology -​ Studies behaviors that are atypical or unexpected -​ No definitive threshold exists between normal and abnormal behavior Continuum model of abnormality -​ We look at human behavior on a continuum model -​ It is influenced by context, factors, and culture (what is normal in one culture could be abnormal in another) Definition of psychopathology -​ Field that studies psychological disorders -​ understanding , treating disorders, and preventing psychological dysfunction Four D’s of abnormality: dysfunction, distress, deviant, dangerousness -​ dysfunction : interferes with the ability to function in daily life (big part of diagnosing!! Can be dysfunction in interpersonal, occupational, or self care) -​ Distress: causes emotional or physical pain -​ Deviant: differ from “typical” behavior -​ Dangerousness: Harmful behaviors and feelings (majority of psychological disorders aren’t dangerous -> but some can include harm to others and self harm)) The disease model -​ Common belief is that mental illness = disease process -> Behaviors, thoughts, feelings are pathological -> the modern view is that mental disorders = collections of problems Cultural relativism -​ No universal rules for labeling behavior abnormal -> cultural norms define abnormality -​ This can be bad why?: dangerous for cultural norms to define abnormality -> it's good to think about cultural relativism but can be negative cultures from the past -> discrimination against jewish people, thinking they are lesser and had mental disabilities, same with soviet union, and slaves trying to escape Exorcism and trephination During prehistoric times -​ Exorcism: driving evil spirits from the body -​ Trephination: drilling holes into the skull Ancient Chinese theories: yin/yang -​ Ancient china has some of the earliest writings on abnormal psychology -​ Balancing yin/yang -​ Emotions controlled by internal organs Ancient Egypt, Greece, Rome: wandering uterus and hysteria -​ Biological theories dominated -​ Women's symptoms is due to a wandering uterus looking for sperm around the body -​ “Hysteria” average greeks and romans -​ Believed that abnormality was an affiliation from the god’s Hippocrates: body’s humors, 4 categories of abnormality, treatment recommendations -​ Believed that diseases caused imbalance in the body's humors -​ Blood, phlegm, yellow bile, black bile  -​ 4 categories of abnormal behavior -​ Epilepsy, mania, melancholia, and brain fever -​ The treatment is to restore balance to the humors -> extreme treatments included bloodletting Medieval views: psychic epidemics -​ Witchcraft -​ Accused witches were possibly mentally ill -​ Weyer, scott, teresa of avila -​ Psychic epidemics: crowd engages in unusual behaviors that has a psychological origin -> dance frenzies (like they were possessed), tarantism (acute pain, behaving widely, dancing in the streets, digging holes into the ground) -> social psychology explains these group epidemics spread of asylums -​ Early asylums housed “troublesome” people -​ Hospital of St. Mary of Bethlehem in London (1547) -> patients were chained to walls and not always fed -​ Laws protected the public (not the people in the mentally ill) -​ Daltons common law (1618) -> people who brought mentally ill people could do anything to them to protect the public -​ Act for regulating madhouses (1774) in England -​ Cleaning up asylums -> inspections and multiple signatures from physicians (only for people paying, only for private asylums) -​ In europe there were towns of people with psychological disorders Mental hygiene movement -​ People who created this movement believed People develop problems because they become separated from nature and because of stress Moral treatment: definition and why the movement failed -​ The movement failed because it grew too fast -> there was a lack of trained professional, a huge uptick of immigration, a lot of prejudice towards foreigner and were pushed into these institutions, turned into warehouses Key figures in moral treatment movement: Pinel, Tuke, Dix -​ Philippe Pinel (1745-1826) -> took charge of the asylums in paris, was accredited for the reformation of asylums in paris -> allowed people to walk freely among the asylums -​ William Tuke (1732-1822) -> quaker asylum in england: the retreat -> more freedom in a humane way -​ Dorothea diz (1802-1887) -> teached sunday school class in prisons and noticed how awful the conditions were and that a lot of people there had psychological disorders, began to lonely for the people and established 30 institution in the us and beyond and focused on treating people in a humane way Key figures in early biological perspectives: Griesinger, Kraepelin Wilhem Griesinger -> The pathology and Therapy of Psychic Disorders (1845) -> all psychological disorders could be described through brain pathology, the practice side of this was having problems but the research side was doing well  -​ Emil Kraepelin (1883) -> developed a classification scheme for disorders, also emphasized brain pathology and same up with a classification system General paresis -​ Discovery of a disease that leads to paralysis, insanity, and death that is caused by syphilis -​ Pope had syphilis -​ Important for looking at biological perspectives Key psychoanalytic figures: Mesmer and Mesmerism, Charcot, Freud, Breuer -​ Franz Anton Mesmer: austrian physician, distribution of magnetic fluid in determined health -> mesmerism (1778), became known as hypnosis -> seem to put people under a trance -​ Jean Charcot: french neurologist, expert on psychological causes of abnormal behavior -​ Sigmund Freud and Josef Breuer -> hypnosis, unconscious mind, catharsis, psychoanalysis: study of the unconscious mind Key figures in behaviorism: Pavlov, Watson, Thorndike, Skinner -​ Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) -> russian physiologist, classical conditioning -​ John Watson (1878 - 1958) -> studied behaviors using classical conditioning -​ E.L Thorndike & B.F Skinner -> operant conditioning -​ Behaviorism -> study of the impact of rewards and punishments on behavior Key cognitive figures and their models: Bandura, Ellis, Beck -​ Cognitions: thought processes that influence behavior and emoticon -​ Albert Bandura: self-efficacy beliefs determines well - being -​ Albert ellis: rational - emotive therapy -> how do we change people's thoughts -​ Aaron beck: cognitive therapy Patients’ rights movement, deinstitutionalization, Community mental health movement -​ Patients rights movement: ensure that patients receive basic rights and care, they should be allowed to go back into the community and go back for their care -​ deinstitualization: integrating patients into the community -​ Community mental health movement: move patients from long-term care facilities to short-term and community mental health centers Chapter 2 Define biological approach, psychological approach, and sociocultural approach -​ Biological: abnormal genes or neurobiological dysfunction -​ Psychological: cognitions, personality, emotions, learning -​ Sociocultural: environmental conditions and cultural norms Define theory and therapy -​ Theory: describe causes or contributing factors to mental disorders -> in general treatments are based on theory -​ Treatment: treatments that target the causes of psychological disorders, based on theory, is different for each theory Define biopsychosocial approach, transdiagnostic risk factors, diathesis-stress model -​ biopsychosocial approach: interaction of biological, psychological, and social factors -​ Transdiagnostic risk factors: increase risk of multiple types of disorders  -​ Diathesis Stress model: interaction between existing diathesis and stress trigger Regions and structures of the brain (and their functions) Hindbrain: Midbrain: Forebrain: involved in most advanced mental processes, two hemispheres connected by the corpus callosum ​ Each hemisphere is divided into four lobes -> frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal ​ Thalamus: directs incoming information from sensory receptors ​ Hypothalamus: regulates eating, drinking, sexual behavior, and processes emotions Limbic system: set of structures that regulate many instinctive behaviors ​ ​ Amygdala: critical in emotions such as fear ​ ​ Hippocampus: plays a role in memory Neurotransmitters (definition and types), synapse, receptors, reuptake, degradation -​ Neurotransmitters: biochemicals that carry impulses between neurons -​ Synapse: gap between synaptic terminal of one neuron and dendrite of another neuron -​ Receptors: molecules on the membrane of an adjacent neuron -​ Neurotransmitters from one neuron cross the synapse and bind to receptors on the receiving on receiving neurons -​ Reuptake: sending neurotransmitters absorbs excess neurotransmitter from synapse -​ Degradation: receiving neuron releases an enzyme into the synapse that breaks down the neurotransmitter types of neurotransmitters -​ Serotonin: depression, anxiety, aggression -​ Dopamine: affected by substances (eg alcohol) and behaviors (eg sex) that are pleasurable -​ Norepinephrine: cocaine and amphetamine, depression -​ Gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA): anxiety Biological approaches: biochemical imbalances -> psychological symptoms caused by: too many or to few receptors, decreased or increased sensitivity of receptors, increased or decreased amounts of neurotransmitters Endocrine system: hormone, pituitary gland -​ Endocrine system: system of glands that produces hormones -​ Hormone: carries messages throughout the body -​ Pituitary gland: helps regulate stress response Behavioral genetics -​ Study of the genetics of personality and abnormality -​ Chromosome contain individual genes -​ Genes give coded instructions to cells -​ Most psychological disorders are polygenic -> multiple genetic abnormalities create a specific disorder How genes and environment interact -​ Genes influence the environments we choose, environment acts as a catalyst for a genetic tendency Epigenetics: Environmental conditions affect the expression of genes  Antipsychotic drugs, antidepressant drugs, lithium, antianxiety drugs -​ Drug therapies: medications that alter neurotransmitter system -​ Antipsychotic drugs: reduce psychotic symptoms -​ Antidepressant drugs: reduce depressive symptoms -​ Lithium: mood stabilizer for bipolar disorder -​ Antianxiety drugs: reduce anxiety symptoms Electroconvulsive therapy, repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation, deep brain stimulation, vagus nerve Stimulation Brain stimulation techniques Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) – Electrical current induces seizure in brain Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) – repeated, high intensity magnetic pulses focused on particular brain structures Deep brain stimulation – electrodes surgically implanted in specific areas of the brain Vagus nerve stimulation – electrodes are surgically implanted at the vagus nerve Psychosurgery Neurosurgeon destroys small areas of the brain involved in symptoms  Advantages/disadvantages of biological therapies Effective, but side effects. -​ Do not work for everyone. -​ Will people rely on drugs rather than deal with issues? -​ Ignore environmental and psychological processes Behavioral approaches: classical conditioning, operant conditioning, modeling and observational learning, systematic desensitization therapy - Classical conditioning – Explains seemingly irrational responses to a neutral stimuli Operant conditioning – Shape new behaviors through rewards and punishments – Conditioned avoidance response Modeling – New behaviors learned by imitating others Observational learning: – Person learns by observing the rewards and punishments that another person receives Focus on influence of reinforcements and punishments on behavior Behavioral assessment Systematic Desensitization Therapy –gradually extinguishing anxiety responses to stimuli Advantages/disadvantages of behavioral approaches Effectiveness supported in research Disadvantages –Cannot address all disorders –Evidence comes from lab studies –Does not recognize free will Cognitive theories: causal attributions, global assumptions, steps in cognitive therapy Cognitions shape behavior and emotions Causal attributions – Thoughts about why an event happens to us Global assumptions – Broad beliefs about ourselves, our relationships and the world Steps Identify and challenge dysfunctional thoughts and belief systems – Replace irrational cognitions with realistic ones – Teach effective problem-solving strategies – Short-term Cognitive behavioral therapy  Cognitive techniques combined with behavioral techniques Advantages/disadvantages of cognitive approaches Useful for sexual disorders, depression, and substance use Difficult to prove causal role of cognition Psychodynamic approaches: Freud, catharsis, repression, free association, resistance, transference, working through, interpersonal therapy Behavior influenced by unconscious processes. Long-term therapy Freud’s psychoanalytic theory –Catharsis release of emotions –Repression ego pushes anxiety-provoking material back into the unconscious ego psychology –Regulating defense mechanisms to promote healthy functioning Object relations –Early relationships create representations of relationships Contemporary psychodynamic theories –Self-psychology: self-concept affects how we relate to others –Relational psychoanalysis: how relationships with others affect abnormality Help clients recognize – Maladaptive coping strategies – Unconscious conflicts Free association – Client talks about whatever comes to mind Resistance – Blocking emotionally heavy information Transference – Client redirects feelings for someone else to the therapist. Working through – Repeatedly going over painful memories INTERPERSONAL THERAPY (IPT) Shifted focus from unconscious conflicts to clients’ relationships with others Short-term therapy Much more structured and directive Advantages/disadvantages of psychodynamic approaches  Lack of scientific data Unaffordable for most clients Humanistic approaches: Rogers, client-centered therapy, reflection Humanistic theories –innate capacity for goodness and living a full life Carl Rogers –Move towards personal growth, self- acceptance, and self-actualization Goal: Help clients discover their potential Client-Centered Therapy – Unconditional positive regard – Communicate with empathic understanding Reflection – therapist attempts to understand what client is experiencing and Communicating Advantages/disadvantages of humanistic approaches Refreshing change from other approaches Vague and not subject to scientific testing Best for moderate distress Family systems approaches including advantages/disadvantages Individual’s disorder indicates a dysfunctional family system Family systems therapy –Treat the family system to resolve an individual’s symptoms. –Behavioral family systems therapy targets family communication and problem solving Effective for children. Needs more research Third wave: dialectical behavior therapy, acceptance and commitment therapy Focus on people’s ability to understand and regulate their emotions. – Emotion regulation is a transdiagnostic risk factor Dialectical behavior therapy – helps manage negative emotions and control impulsive behaviors Acceptance and commitment therapy  – face distressing situations and emotions rather than avoiding them Research suggests effectiveness for a range of mental health problems More research is needed Sociocultural risk factors How does larger society contribute to psychological problems? Risk factors: –Socioeconomic disadvantage –Upheaval/disintegration of societies –Social norms and policies –Societal rules Chapter 3 Psychological assessment, presenting problem, syndrome, diagnosis Basic Elements in Assessment Psychological Assessment evaluating psychological, social, and emotional functioning Presenting Problem Major symptoms or behaviors the client is experiencing Syndrome Symptoms that cluster together Diagnosis Label given to symptoms that cluster together in specific patterns Validity: content, predictive, construct Validity extent to which a test measures what it purports to measure Content validity How well a test measures a phenomenon Predictive validity How well a test predicts future behavior Construct validity how well a test measures one thing and not another Reliability: test-retest, alternate form, internal, interrater reliability degree of consistency in a test Test-retest reliability  Consistency of test results over time Alternate form reliability Consistency between multiple forms of a test Internal reliability Consistency in clients’ answers to different parts of a test Interrater reliability Consistency between raters who score a test Standardization Standardization Administering, scoring, and interpreting a test in a standard way. T score distribution Clinical interview, mental status exam, structured, unstructured, and semi-structured Clinical Interview def: In-depth interview with client Presenting problem Behavioral history Attitudes Emotions Social history and context Personality Factors Clinical Interview Mental Status Exam: Questions that assess client’s current mental state Appearance and behavior Thought processes Mood and affect Intellectual functioning Sensorium Clinical Interviews types: Structured Series of standardized questions Concrete scoring criteria Unstructured Open-ended questions Semi-structured Combination of standardized and open-ended question Symptom questionnaires Symptom Questionnaires Self-report questionnaire to assess presence of symptoms Can be general or specific Example: Beck Depression Inventory Symptom Questionnaires Personality inventory, MMPI-2 Personality Inventories Ask respondents to identify descriptions that apply to them. Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 (MMPI-2) 550 items Empirical keying 10 Clinical scales 4 Validity scales Behavioral observation: direct observation, role-playing Behavioral Observation and Self-Monitoring Direct Observation Observation of client in natural environment Observation not possible? Role-playing Acting or Reenacting an event Self-minoring Self-monitoring Client rates their behavior in natural environment Smartphone self-monitoring What do intelligence tests assess? Determines level of cognitive functioning Series of verbal and nonverbal tasks Problems: What is intelligence? Test bias What do neuropsychological tests assess? Neuropsychological assessment Assesses neurological impairment Bender Gestalt Test Luria-Nebrask Neuropsychological Battery Halstead-Reitan Neuropsychological Battery Brain imaging techniques: CT scan, PET scan, SPECT scan, MRI, fMRI Computerized tomography (CT) scan X-rays construct image of brain Positron emission tomography (PET) scan Assesses brain activity using metabolic profile Single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) Like PET, but different tracer used Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) Constructs magnetic field to provide 3-D image of brain Functional MRI (fMRI) Measures changes in oxygen levels to “map” brain activity EEG Psychophysiological Tests Used to detect changes in brain and nervous system Electroencephalogram (EEG) Measures electrical activity in brain Projective tests Client response to ambiguous stimuli Theory: people “project” their personality and fears onto the stimuli Examples: Rorschach Inkblot Test Thematic Apperception Test Problems: Subjective interpretation Time-consuming ICD and DSM Kraepelin (1883) First modern classification system Diagnosis and the DSM  International Classification of Disease (ICD) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders DSM I (1952) –influenced by psychoanalytic theory DSM II (1968) – more disorders DSM III (1980), DSM III-R (1987), DSM IV (1994), DSM IV TR (2000) Specific and concrete criteria for disorders DSM 5 (2013) Diagnosis and the DSM Early editions vs. DSM-5 How long symptoms must be present to be diagnosed Symptoms must interfere with functioning Continuing Debates Reifying diagnoses Category or continuum? Differentiating mental disorders from one another Addressing cultural issues Social-Psychological Dangers of Diagnosis Chapter 4 Steps in scientific method, hypothesis, null hypothesis, variable, dependent variable, independent variable, Operationalization Step 1 - Define problem and state hypothesis Hypothesis statement predicting what will happen in a study Null hypothesis prediction that there is no relationship between Phenomen Step 2 - Choose and implement a method Variable Factor that can vary Dependent variable Independent variable  Operationalization Way to measure or manipulate the variables Step 3 - Collect and analyze data Step 4 - Draw conclusions Case studies, including advantages/disadvantages Detailed history of an individuals with a psychological disorder Advantage Study rare problems Disadvantages Cannot be generalized Lack objectivity Correlational study: continuous, group comparison, cross-sectional, longitudinal, positive correlation, negative correlation, third variable problem Examine the relationship between an independent variable and dependent variable No variable manipulation Correlation Coefficient Statistic representing the relationship between variables ​ r ​ −1.00 and +1.00 Positive correlation Negative correlation Statistical significance Statistical Significance Index of how likely a result is due to chance p