Chapter 6 Navigating Theory and Practice: Digital Video Games (DVGs) in STEM Education PDF

Chapter 6 Navigating Theory and Practice: Digital Video Games (DVGs) in STEM Education Isha DeCoito and Lisa K. Briona 6.1 Introduction Globally, education policy reform has called for preK-16 schools to improve stu- dents’ twenty-first century learning skills. In particular, the emphasis is on...

Chapter 6 Navigating Theory and Practice: Digital Video Games (DVGs) in STEM Education Isha DeCoito and Lisa K. Briona 6.1 Introduction Globally, education policy reform has called for preK-16 schools to improve stu- dents’ twenty-first century learning skills. In particular, the emphasis is on deeper integration of numeracy, scientific and technological literacy within the curriculum, and their understanding of science and technology content, socio-scientific issues, the nature of science, and scientific and technological problem-solving (DeCoito, 2017; Millar, 2006). Additionally, in this rapidly changing and technologically evolving world there is a need for skilled labour and professionals in STEM fields. An emphasis on STEM stresses a multidisciplinary approach to better prepare all students in STEM subjects and increase the number of postsecondary graduates who are prepared for STEM occupations (Conference Board of Canada, 2013; NRC, 2011). Students must be inspired, engaged, and have deep understandings of STEM content and their applications if they are to consider future studies and/or jobs in STEM fields (DeCoito, 2016). This warrants concern as the number of indi- viduals graduating from and/or pursuing careers in STEM fields is seriously lagging (Mishagina, 2012). When available, today’s students can leverage suitable STEM education and training to address the STEM labour and skills gap and secure their futures (Abdalla et al., 2018). To support successful adaptation to the ever-increasing integration of technology into our lives, it is vital that education emphasize technological literacy, especially for students intending to pursue STEM focused careers, such as engineering, archi- tecture, medicine or information technology. One avenue for enhancing scientific, engineering, technological and numeracy literacies, while at the same time I. DeCoito (*) · L. K. Briona Western University, London, Canada e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 85 V. L. Akerson, G. A. Buck (eds.), Critical Questions in STEM Education, Contemporary Trends and Issues in Science Education 51, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57646-2_6 86 I. DeCoito and L. K. Briona supporting the development of twenty-first century skills, is through the implemen- tation of digital video games (DVGs) within an integrated STEM education context. In this chapter, the authors discuss the use of DVGs as a learning environment; one that engages learners through technology, provides opportunity for creative out- put, and promotes the intrinsic motivation for learning necessary to advance the development of twenty-first century skills and interaction with STEM content. The authors highlight the development of DVGs in a STEM methods course in teacher education along with teacher candidates’ reflections on DVG development, and sub- sequent incorporation of DVGs in a practicum setting by one of the authors. 6.1.1 STEM Education A major goal of the STEM agenda is to improve the proficiency of all students in STEM, regardless of whether or not they choose to pursue STEM careers or post-­ secondary studies, while at the same time fostering the twenty-first century skills identified as being crucial for success (Orpwood, Schmidt, & Jun, 2012). These skills include critical thinking, problem solving, creativity, collaboration, self-­ directed learning, as well as scientific, environmental, and technological literacies (Howard-Brown & Martinez, 2012). STEM education is a rethinking of traditional approaches to teaching STEM subjects, whereby these four strands are integrated into one “meta-discipline” (Fioriello, 2010). While many definitions of STEM exist, we are focusing on an approach that stresses meaningful interdependence among all disciplines of STEM. In other words, including all individual disciplines of STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) in a way that is meaningful and showcases the interdependence of the fields. Despite the various definitions of STEM, educators struggle with integrating these disciplines for various reasons, including content knowledge, pedagogical knowledge, and pedagogical content knowledge (DeCoito & Myszkal, 2018; Koehler & Mishra, 2009), to name a few. Successful STEM education goes hand-in-hand with effective instructional prac- tices. Few teachers are prepared to operationalize STEM education, and according to Wilson (2011), better preparation of students lies in effective instruction that actively engages them in science, mathematics, and technology engineering prac- tices throughout their schooling, and broadens their awareness of STEM careers. Moreover, research has demonstrated that integrated STEM education is student-­ centered, can increase retention and promote problem solving and higher-level thinking skills (Stohlmann, Moore, & Roehrig, 2012). In this way, students succes- sively deepen their understanding, both of core ideas in the STEM fields and of concepts that are shared across areas of STEM (DeCoito & Myszkal, 2018). 6 Navigating Theory and Practice: Digital Video Games (DVGs) in STEM Education 87 6.1.2 Teacher Education The task of preparing teachers to become technologically competent is challenging and requires ample effort, time, and opportunities. Some teachers do not feel pre- pared to integrate technology into their practice; not due to a lack of the technology itself, but rather due to a lack of knowledge of how to integrate the technology into their teaching. Ruggiero and Mong (2015) described factors that potentially influ- ence teachers’ use of technology as both external (resources, training, and support) and internal (personal investment in technology, attitude toward technology, and peer support) barriers. Often, a lack of comfort by teachers in teaching the required content is reflected in poor preparation of students (Schmidt, 2011). Weak initial teacher preparation heightens the importance of continuing professional develop- ment, but the available research suggests that professional development in STEM, when available, is often short, fragmented, ineffective, and not designed to address the specific need of individual teachers (Wilson, 2011). One area that warrants much attention is teacher education programs, as they can potentially impact STEM education in a positive manner. For example, in a study focused on enhancing sci- ence teacher candidates’ (TC) digital competencies, DeCoito (2017) found that that the explicit integration of digital literacies created and engaged learning communi- ties, while improving technological and scientific literacies in a purposeful manner. In general, teacher education programs are lacking in terms of effectively model- ing technology integration into practice. According to Gray, Thomas, and Lewis (2010), reporting on the National Center for Education Statistics 2009 survey of US teachers, 75% felt that undergraduate teacher education programs and 67% felt that graduate teacher education programs failed to prepare them to use educational tech- nology effectively for instruction. Alarmingly, 78% indicated that they learned to use technology in their classrooms, independent of teacher education programs. This is problematic, given the ever-expanding role of technology in society, and the changing face of curriculum. It speaks directly to necessary changes in teacher edu- cation programs such that the roles of teachers are re-envisioned to support learners in being proactive about, and active participants in their learning (Bolstad et al., 2012) and their future participation in STEM professions. 6.1.3 Digital Literacies and DVGs A promising new frontier lies in using games-based learning to better prepare stu- dents for careers in STEM-related fields. For example, DeCoito (2014) explored digital scientific timelines to teach about the nature of science, and more recently, the potential of digital games to enhance scientific and technological literacy while 88 I. DeCoito and L. K. Briona teaching STEM concepts (DeCoito & Richardson, 2016). Whether STEM skills are taught through the content of digital games or by building a DVG from scratch, one thing is clear: DVGs are a powerful force in young people’s lives. Based on the manner in which DVGs are introduced into education, they have the potential to effectively integrate STEM concepts and principles. Games have the remarkable ability to engage and motivate players, often just through the joy of playing (Dicheva, Dichev, Agre, & Angelova, 2015). In an educational setting, several researchers have reported that students are more motivated to learn gamified concepts, and that they consider them both easier to learn, and easier to recall in test settings (Barata, Gama, Jorge, & Gonçalves, 2013; Byl & Hooper, 2013). Despite today’s students being fully engaged with DVGs as vehicles for edutain- ment, very few educators use DVGs in any substantive way for teaching and learn- ing (Annetta, 2008; DeCoito & Richardson, 2016). Video games can enable STEM education from elementary school to post-secondary as they teach both hard and soft skills such as analytical thinking, multitasking, strategizing, problem-solving, and team building. Video games represent the kind of interactive and self-paced learning that people see as a future guided by technology, with the caveats that games cannot replace traditional teaching methods, and games should not represent the sole teaching/learning component. In spite of games providing opportunities for self-learning, students also need guidance and mentorship from their teacher-as-­ facilitator. The role of the teacher here is not diminished but becomes more chal- lenging and interesting in terms of scaffolding (Vygotsky, 1978) students to learn with this technology. In addition to addressing a variety of STEM skills, DVGs can potentially address seven of the eight practices of science and engineering, identified in A Framework for K-12 Science Education (NRC, 2011) as essential for all students to learn. For example, DVG development can engage students in: i) asking questions (for sci- ence) and defining problems (for engineering); ii) developing and using models; iii) using mathematics, information and computer technology, and computational think- ing; iv) constructing explanations (for science) and designing solutions (for engi- neering); v) engineering design (all components); vi) linking engineering, technology, science and society; and vii) obtaining, evaluating, and communicating information. 6.1.4 The Engineering Design Process (EDP) and DVG Design Engineering is frequently considered the most difficult aspect of STEM to imple- ment in a K-12 classroom setting, and many have argued that it is not possible to teach anything approximating “real engineering” without advanced math and 6 Navigating Theory and Practice: Digital Video Games (DVGs) in STEM Education 89 science knowledge (Bush et al., 2006; Roehrig, Moore, Wang, & Park, 2012). However, part of this perceived difficulty lies in a misunderstanding in what engi- neers actually do, and a general lack of access to engineers: how often do we get to meet the civil engineer that designed the bridge we drive across on our way to work or school every morning? By comparison, lay people have a good general grasp of medicine because of its pervasiveness in our daily lives: many television shows feature actors portraying medical professionals; we have regular interactions with doctors, nurses; etc. The EDP process differs from the scientific process in a very important way. While both involve research and testing, the scientific process involves creating a hypothesis or theory about the world. The EDP is a problem-solving activity, requir- ing a step-by-step iterative methodology whereby a design problem and its solution(s) co-evolve (Dym & Little, 2000). The process is considered an authentic learning experience in which students learn by doing. Storyboarding is a key aspect of the EDP, since storyboards lay the foundation for DVGs, outlining characters, scenes, challenges, and gaming interface. In a pro- fessional setting, storyboards also help prevent “scope creep,” where continuous changes are implemented, or additional expectations are added, causing a potential budget to overrun and missed milestones/ deadlines (Thakurta, 2013). An example of scope creep from the construction field might be an enthusiastic first-time home builder who initially approves a set of plans and budget, then after construction has commenced requires that the kitchen cabinets be moved to the opposite wall, the unfinished basement be finished and contain a family room, wet bar and fireplace, and that the back patio be converted into an enclosed three-season sunroom. In DVG design, storyboards are frequently accompanied by design documents, which track aspects of game play including leveling/scoring rules, plot progression, character backstory and key interactions, unlockable features, and “Easter eggs” – intentional hidden messages or secret rooms placed within a game to encourage and reward game play. Creating smaller games where you are the designer, animator, and programmer offers the luxury of treating them as living documents that can be responsive to constraints, limitations, and new ideas. The American Society for Engineering Education (2011) notes that, “engineers solve problems using science and math.” Truesdell (2014) has observed that the ability to use “clear and concise problem formulation,” that is, to define a project sufficiently to prevent scope creep, is critical to an engineer’s ability to identify a best solution. Together, these observations strongly support the claim that story- boarding, and design documentation, is engineering. The following sections provide a framework for developing DVGs as a strategy for integrating the four STEM disciplines, while at the same time providing oppor- tunities for TCs to enhance STEM literacy, problem solving skills, STEM content knowledge, self-efficacy, coding and computational thinking skills, and career awareness in STEM. 90 I. DeCoito and L. K. Briona 6.2 DVGs in Teacher Education 6.2.1 Context The development of DVGs being reported is an assignment situated in a curriculum and pedagogy course focusing on STEM education within the broader curricular spectrum. In order to connect video games to the world of STEM learning, TCs were required, over four 2-hour seminars, to develop a DVG to teach STEM con- cepts in biology, chemistry or physics. TCs were provided opportunities to develop a variety of STEM skills while creating their DVGs, including programming, math, creative thinking, logic, and using the EDP. One of the main goals of the assign- ment, in addition to incorporating STEM content knowledge, was to introduce TCs to the fundamentals of coding and computational thinking, which are critical skills for programmers and developers. As with any language, it is highly effective to learn by doing; thus, the assignment is an example of a real-world experience that engages students in STEM learning. In addition to the aforementioned goal and given the inequitable access to technological resources in schools, this assignment played a vital role in i) providing opportunities for teachers to engage in the process of developing educative materials linked to curriculum, ii) preparing them for using and modeling technology effectively in their future practices by enhancing and expanding their skill sets, and iii) engaging in best practices associated with inte- grated STEM education. TCs were familiarized with DVGs through discussions of selected literature on games-based learning. Thereafter, TCs participated in two workshops led by a guest speaker. The first workshop introduced DVGs through a practitioner’s lens, in which the guest speaker discussed a computer programming/physics-related career project conducted by grade 12 students to teach grade 10 students about different careers in physics reported elsewhere. TCs then engaged in exploring curricular areas that would benefit from the inclusion of DVGs and were reminded that games should be used in conjunction with good teaching. A number of programming languages, plat- forms, and engines, including Eclipse (https://eclipse.org/), Hour of Code (https:// code.org/learn), and Beyond the Hour of Code (https://code.org/learn/beyond) were discussed. In preparation for the second workshop, TCs were required to explore a programming language and select a concept from the curriculum well-suited for DVG integration. During the second workshop, key aspects of computer game design and different types of games were explored: action, adventure, role-playing, simulation, strategy, skill-based, and other types, along with benefits and challenges (Richardson & DeCoito, 2017). The instructor introduced the EDP and asserted this as a preferred framework for developing the DVGs. This process, which is a key aspect of the Next Generation Science Standards, provided TCs with opportunities to develop a sophisticated problem-solving process, that is transferrable to other disciplines. 6 Navigating Theory and Practice: Digital Video Games (DVGs) in STEM Education 91 6.2.2 DVG Criteria Key criteria considered imperative to the DVG research and development were: i) a STEM education focus, and ii) DVG design. In the former, curricular connections were to be explicit and include three of the four STEM subjects. This choice was provided given the diversity of teacher candidates’ subject matter expertise and interest. In DVG design, career connections were embedded and a pluriversal approach was employed. DVG criteria included mandatory elements: rewards, lev- elling, and an avatar. The presence of an avatar promotes intrinsic motivation to achieve the game objectives, facilitates game immersion, and enhances the game play experience (Birk, Atkins, Bowey, & Mandryk, 2016). Additionally, the ability to name and customize an avatar supports personalized learning and game invest- ment (Konstantinidis, Tsiatsos, & Pomportsis, 2009). To monitor progress, TCs were instructed to storyboard their game and submit reflections based on the process of researching and developing their DVG, up to and including the storyboarding phase. Feedback was provided by the instructor before TCs could move to the next stage of the DVG development. TCs were provided in-­ class opportunities to collaborate and receive online mentorship. Finally, the com- pleted DVGs were submitted, along with TCs’ collective reflections on developing DVGs. TCs were encouraged to implement their DVG and/or DVG development in their practicum classrooms. TCs’ reflections will be discussed later in the chapter, as well as reflections on the modeling and implementation of a similar DVG activity with high school students. The following section highlights Okazaki’s Revenge (http://OkazakisRevenge. GamifiedLearningRD.com), a DVG developed by one of the authors who was a TC during the assignment. It is noteworthy to mention that this particular DVG incor- porates all four STEM subjects. This example guides the reader through the game scenario and mechanics, storyboarding and design, and includes a game walkthrough. 6.2.3 DVG: Okazaki’s Revenge Many students in senior-level biology classes struggle with understanding prokary- otic DNA replication (Knippels, Arend Jan Waarlo, & Boersma, 2005; Reddy, Bhaskara, & Mint, 2017). As the Ontario curriculum requires students to use appro- priate terminology related to molecular genetics, and to be able to explain the cur- rent model of DNA replication (Ontario Ministry of Education, 2008), one of the authors sought to make these concepts accessible using a gamified approach. Game Scenario and Mechanics Loosely inspired by the 1987 movie Innerspace, Okazaki’s Revenge is set in the year 3067: human cancers no longer exist because we rely on nanobots to both ensure our DNA replication accuracy and to destroy any emergent cancer cells before they gain a foothold in our bodies. Players assume the role of a technician trainee responsible for the actions of one of these nanobots. 92 I. DeCoito and L. K. Briona Within the game, nanobots serve two functions: i) to ensure that enzymes associated with DNA replication are placed at the correct location on DNA strands and in the correct temporal sequence, and ii) to destroy the cancer cells before they overrun the host if a cell fails to complete DNA replication correctly and thus turns cancerous. All aspects of the game – ‘History of DNA 101,’ ‘DNA Replication,’ and game play – highlight the science and mathematics components of STEM. While the game interface allows players to go directly to the scored challenge, there is an accompanying two-part teaching module that introduces the basics of DNA and prokaryotic DNA replication, which is accessible at any time of game play. There is also a guided practice arena where players are provided visual cues and enzyme names to learn the order of DNA replication. The practice arena is a standard game mechanism employing aspects of Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development (1978) in that it provides the player a safe environment to learn new key combinations or complex movement routines without penalty. By giving play- ers the opportunity to gain proficiency without incurring punishment, they are chal- lenged but not frustrated to the point of quitting. Game Walkthrough After the initial welcoming splash screen, players are invited to select an avatar (Fig. 6.1). While the teacher modules (DNA Basics & DNA Replication) can be accessed without choosing an avatar, the practice arena and game play field are disabled until one is established. Once the avatar is named, play- ers are situated with the game’s plot. The ‘DNA Basics’ are seven screens that introduce: i) the discovery of DNA by Friedrich Miesher (Fig. 6.2, left); ii) the elucidation by Phoebus Levene that DNA consists of a deoxyribose sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base; iii) the structures and classification of guanine, adenine, cytosine, and thymine; iv) hydro- gen bond formation between purines and pyrimidines as characterized by Erwin Chargaff; v) numbering the carbons in a molecule of deoxyribose; vi) how a nucleo- tide is formed from the principle constituents (Fig. 6.2, right); and vii) the contribu- tions that Rosalind Franklin, James Watson, and Francis Crick made to our understanding of DNA organization, and that DNA consists of two antiparallel strands normally written in a 5′ → 3′ format. These slides review the science of genetics in an interactive manner (click-based navigation) supporting a familiar pas- sive learning style (reading-only, with no responsive feedback). The writing is Fig. 6.1 Left: Choosing an avatar in Okazaki’s Revenge. Right: Customizing the avatar 6 Navigating Theory and Practice: Digital Video Games (DVGs) in STEM Education 93 Fig. 6.2 Left: DNA Basics slide 1 – the discovery of DNA. Right: DNA Basics slide 6 – the forma- tion of a nucleotide from the principle constituents simple and accessible and provides definitions and clarifications that address common misconceptions associated with genetics (Mills Shaw, Van Horne, Zhang, & Boughman, 2008). Portraits of all scientists mentioned humanizes the science, and clearly labeled figures promotes understanding. During Okazaki’s Revenge gameplay the discipline of mathematics is relevant to the structure of DNA. Geometry describes the shape of an object at a particular instance in time. The most common representation of DNA in high school textbooks is of the B-form: two strands of DNA coiling around each other, with the minor groove of one seamlessly fitting into the major groove of the other, and each helix mathematically defined using simple trigonometry. Topology describes how an object deforms, such as how double-stranded DNA unzips during replication. Using the observations that the distance between base pairs is ~3.4 Å, the diameter of B-DNA is ~20 Å, and that each turn of the helix is about 10 base pairs, biologists can readily calculate the length of a helix (~34 Å), or the number of base pairs in a given length of DNA. While these are simple calculations, they are nontrivial, and are relevant to more advanced topics such as molecular biology and synthetic biol- ogy. In addition to mathematics being highlighted in DNA structure, the logical progression of learning and the rules of gameplay in Okazaki’s Revenge necessitates an understanding of mathematical concepts to develop and implement the DVG suc- cessfully (discussed later). ‘DNA Replication’ is a series of 10 slides that navigate through prokaryotic DNA replication, accompanied by looping animations. Facts are highlighted about DNA replication including: i) it is semi-conservative; ii) it begins at the origin of replication (Fig. 6.3, left); iii) uses DNA helicase to break the H-bonds between complementary base pairs; iv) it employs single-stranded binding proteins to pre- vent premature re-annealing; v) it recruits DNA gyrase to eliminate supercoiling; vi) it uses primase to attach an RNA primer prior to replication; vii) it engages Pol III to replicate the template strand of DNA (Fig. 6.3, right); viii) it uses Pol I to remove and replace the RNA primers; ix) it has ligase join the Okazaki fragments; and x) it uses Poll II as a proof reader. The practice arena (Fig. 6.4, left) has an identical layout to the gameplay screen (Fig. 6.4, right). In the practice arena, the game layout is explained using the two 94 I. DeCoito and L. K. Briona Fig. 6.3 Left: DNA Replication slide 2 – the origin of replication. Right: DNA Replication slide 7 – engaging Pol III to replicate the template strand of DNA Fig. 6.4 Left: Practice arena. Right: Game play in which players choose a dark grey cell from the petri dish, then select and apply the correct protein/enzyme based on the prompt in the box instructional boxes in the centre of the screen, while hints are provided in the lower box. Players are instructed and prompted to become proficient in facilitating DNA replication. When the bacterial cell on the right requires nanobot assistance during the DNA replication process, the DNA (white) flashes within the cell (compare the bacterium cross-section in Fig. 6.4, left, with Fig. 6.4, right). The player can cycle through the various proteins/enzymes associated with DNA replication using the left and right arrows. In both practice and live gameplay, the proteins/enzymes are named. However, only in the practice arena are players prompted with hints (bottom middle of screen). Additionally, during practice players have an unlimited amount of time to find the correct protein/enzyme to apply to the cell on the right; during gameplay they have 30 seconds before replication fails and the cell “dies.” Both screenshots shown in Fig. 6.4 include a petri dish of cells (shown on the left side of the game interface) that the technician is responsible for maintaining. Light grey cells are in interphase or undergoing DNA replication without incident, and require no intervention. Dark grey cells are stalled in the DNA replication process and require assistance (in the petri dish shown in Fig. 6.4, left, there are six cells requir- ing intervention). Players choose which dark grey cell to “fix,” as each cell is ran- domly assigned the replication step at which it is stalled. During practice and level 1 of gameplay, dark grey cells can accumulate without penalty. At level 2 of game- play, however, if they remain dark grey too long (90 seconds), they become speck- led, signifying that they have become cancerous (Fig. 6.4, right). Players “destroy” cancer cells by clicking on them. Gameplay is over when the petri dish becomes overrun with cancerous cells. 6 Navigating Theory and Practice: Digital Video Games (DVGs) in STEM Education 95 Game Storyboard and Design Technology was utilized in the development and implementation of Okazaki’s Revenge. Construct 2 (www.scirra.com) was employed as an HTML5-based visual game editor to create Okazaki’s Revenge for both its operating system independence (games created with Construct 2 run on any plat- form, and in any HTML5-compliant browser), and to evaluate its efficacy at novice/ non-programmer support. Computation thinking (CT), defined as “the thought pro- cess involved in formulating a problem and expression its solution(s) in such a way that a computer – human or machine – can effectively carry out” (Wing, 2014), is inherent in the design of Okazaki’s Revenge. CT involves problem solving (via logi- cal thinking, such as deciding whether or not a particular problem can be solved computationally), building algorithms (describing step-by-step procedures to solve a particular problem), and execution (programming and debugging a solution). Only this last core skill can be addressed via programming. The first core skill of CT – problem solving – involves defining the scope and parameters of a problem, and frequently includes problem decomposition: breaking down a complex problem into smaller problems that are simpler, more discrete and usually easier to solve. It also involves identifying the order in which these smaller problems need to be solved in order to solve the parent problem. Algorithm building describes a solution in terms of actions, loops, or decisions. Actions are a set of one or more instructions that are completed sequentially. For example, in the DVG Okazaki’s Revenge, the welcome screen is displayed first, followed by the “Choose Avatar screen.” These two sequential instructions represent an Action in the Okazaki’s Revenge algorithm prototype. Loops are a set of instructions that are repeated as a whole. In the Okazaki’s Revenge petri dish, each cell’s movement path is defined as a set of repeating steps: move x pixels up and y pixels left, wait a little while, then move z pixels down and γ pixels right, wait a little while, and repeat. Decisions require a choice (e.g., players of Okazaki’s Revenge choose an avatar from a selection of five). Another example of a decision is when players drag a pro- tein/enzyme into the cell. If the correct enzyme is placed, then the score increases and the cell disappears; however, if an incorrect enzyme is placed, then the player loses 5 points and has to try again. The initial storyboard and design document (Fig. 6.5) for Okazaki’s Revenge uses a screenshot from the How Nucleotides Are Added in DNA Replication anima- tion (Raven, 2007) to illustrate key game play content. The two images show the anticipated split-screen game play: the upper portion of the screen mimics a petri dish of healthy cells that are in interphase (mid-grey), undergoing mitosis (dark outline with light grey center), or cancerous cells needing destruction (dark grey). The lower portion of the screen shows a double-stranded DNA in the process of replication, and players would need to place the appropriate proteins/enzymes to help complete the replication process. Additionally, the design document identifies the game’s purpose, curriculum correlation, scenario and scenes. It also describes which aspects of gameplay can be customized by the player, the levels, and the type(s) of gameplay employed. In the case of Okazaki’s Revenge, adventure, first-­ person-­shooter, and educational game motifs were utilized. 96 I. DeCoito and L. K. Briona Fig. 6.5 Initial storyboard and design document for Okazaki’s Revenge Logic Flowcharting Game Mechanics Not only is logic a part of mathematics, it is the language of mathematics (Lawson, 2019; Roberts, 2010). Logic provides us with the ability to reason, to understand cause and effect, and to make rational deci- sions. In programming, logic flowcharts are a valuable part of developing the pro- gramming logic and game mechanics. They help programmers visualize gameplay and ensure all use-case scenarios are considered, beyond the obvious gameplay intention (e.g., what if the player doesn’t ever choose a protein? What if there are no more light grey cells in the petri dish?). Figure 6.6 shows a simplified logic flow- chart for the gameplay portion of Okazaki’s Revenge. Diamond shapes represent points of decision, while rectangles represent actions. Logic flowcharts are typically written in the common tongue to maximize understanding when game development requires collaboration. In most scored DVGs, gameplay becomes more challenging as the player gains experience and acumen. In Okazaki’s Revenge, three levels are supported: Level One is for players with a score less than 500, Level Two is for players with a score between 501 and 1000, and Level Three is for players with a score greater than 1000. One way in which Okazaki’s Revenge makes gameplay more challenging is via the reduction of time available to find the correct protein as the player progresses through the levels. At Level One, players have 30 seconds to find the correct protein when the DNA is flashing; at Level Two this decreases to 15 seconds, and at Level Three players have a mere eight seconds. 6 Navigating Theory and Practice: Digital Video Games (DVGs) in STEM Education 97 Fig. 6.6 Simplified logic flowchart for gameplay and scoring in Okazaki’s Revenge 6.3 Reflecting on DVG Development 6.3.1 TCs’ Reflections on DVG Development The final assessment of the DVGs included a two-page reflection describing TCs’ journey – from conceptualizing to playing the DVG. For the purpose of this chapter, three guiding questions that were part of the reflections were analyzed: 1) What do you feel were the most challenging aspects of developing a DVG? 2) What were your major successes in terms of developing a DVG? 3) What learnings do you feel you achieved that can be translated into your future practice? Reflections from 15 (seven females; eight males) out of 29 TCs’ were randomly selected for the analysis. Participants’ reflections were analyzed using NVivo12 98 I. DeCoito and L. K. Briona software and constituted an interpretational analysis framework. Responses to the three questions were inputted as separate datasets into NVivo12 and analyzed for keyword frequency. Word clouds were generated through keyword frequency analy- sis, and this process was selected as it represented an aggregate of TC responses, as well as provided greater prominence to words (themes) that appear more frequently in the source text. The findings are illustrated below. 1. What do you feel were the most challenging aspects of developing a DVG? TCs expressed feelings of being overwhelmed and intimidated by the assign- ment. The major barrier identified was a lack of programming experience, including coding, identifying an effective programming environment, and using variables (Fig. 6.7, left). In addition, TCs felt challenged in terms of their own learning pro- cess in researching the game subject matter, creating an engaging experience for students, and the frustrations of debugging their DVG. Despite instructions to the contrary, scope was a challenge for many TCs as they initially storyboarded ambitious games approximating the complexity found in Nintendo’s Mario Kart or Blizzard’s World of Warcraft. 2. What were your major successes in terms of developing a DVG? Overall, TCs were successful and recognized that their journey in DVG develop- ment improved their self-efficacy in terms of digital literacies (Fig. 6.7, middle). Many of the TCs expressed great pride in developing a functional DVG, despite their initial resistance to this assignment. The TCs observed that the experience of being out of their comfort zone during this assignment paralleled what their students will experience in practice. Furthermore, this assignment helped them internalize the importance and necessity for student support and scaffolding when implementing novel learning experiences in the classroom. 3. What learnings do you feel you achieved that can be translated into your future practice? Fig. 6.7 Left: Word cloud highlighting TCs’ challenges in DVG development. Middle: Word cloud highlighting TCs’ successes in DVG development. Right: Word cloud highlighting TCs’ learnings during DVG development 6 Navigating Theory and Practice: Digital Video Games (DVGs) in STEM Education 99 TCs recognized that success in DVG development was achieved through perse- verance. In addition to learning STEM skills, such as coding and digital literacies, TCs also saw the possibilities for DVGs in their future practice (Fig. 6.7, right). Despite the fact that TCs felt the process of DVG development was valuable to them as practitioners, they perceived the exercise of creating a DVG as being more ben- eficial to their future students in terms of twenty-first century skills development and assessment. All but one of the 15 TCs’ indicated that they intended to incorpo- rate variations of the assignment in their future practice. 6.4 Reflecting on Implementation of DVGs in Practice In the final reflection that was submitted with the completed DVGs, TCs were asked to reflect on their journey developing the DVGs, and whether they would incorpo- rate DVGs in their future practice. All TCs were encouraged to play their peers’ DVG and provide anonymous feedback. Below is a portion of one of the author’s (a TC during the course) reflective account of implementing the DVG assignment with high school students. In my third practicum, and after consultation with my associate teacher (AT), we decided to test DVG creation as an in-class assignment over three 75-minute periods with one grade 10 science (academic) and two grade 11 chemistry classes (univer- sity preparation). On the first day, students were introduced to Scratch, and were provided a worksheet that walked them through game design basics. By the end of the first class, most students (over 90%) had successfully created a Greek suffix-­ Roman numeral matching game. On the second day, the assignment was discussed: students had to create a Scratch game that focused on some aspect of their course. Similar to the response observed in my teacher education class, most students pro- tested that this represented an unfair and unduly difficult assignment and appealed to the AT for relief. In response to student concerns, the AT chose to adopt the role of a student and complete the assignment alongside the students. By the end of the second day, most students had resigned themselves to creating a game, and were starting to enjoy the process. However, in each of the three classes, five to eight students appeared overwhelmed by the task. To support these students, on the third day I provided access to the Scratch prototypes I had previously created. Many students chose to submit a variation on the Greek suffix-Roman numeral matching game; for example, matching chemical formulae and chemical name, or converting the matching game to a drag-drop game where chemicals had to be iden- tified as ionic or covalent in nature. Most of the students that were still struggling at the end of the second day created Jeopardy!-style test preparation games that asked questions they themselves were struggling with, as study aides. Of particular note is the assignment submitted by a student with exceptionalities. George (pseudonym) was identified as being on the autistic spectrum, and had difficulty interacting with his classmates, being boisterous and highly opinionated with his peers. He struggled learning chemistry content but seemed to enjoy working independently. Of the 80+ 100 I. DeCoito and L. K. Briona students that completed this assignment, George was the only one that taught him- self how to download a song from YouTube and implement an MP3 player within Scratch. His game used multiple backgrounds, changing color as more questions were answered correctly, and included a score counter. It was humbling to see a “problem student” excel to such an extent when properly challenged to succeed, and George represented a poignant reminder that all students are capable of far, far more than teachers believe. All students were asked to complete a reflection as part of their assignment. Well over half the students felt that they learned something during the assignment and were interested in taking programming courses in the future. At my practicum school I was involved in the after-school Computer Club. After completing the assignment, seven students from these three classes began attending the Computer Club to learn more about programming. Of these seven, four were girls that were checking themselves back into the STEM pipeline, having previously identified as interested in the humanities or arts, and science only tangentially. Additionally, sev- eral girls during the three days of in-class work remarked to me that they didn’t know they were smart; they thought only boys could program, and that it was a revelation to them that girls could be good programmers too! 6.5 Conclusion This chapter highlights DVGs in STEM teacher education as an avenue for develop- ing skills and practices essential for all students to learn, in accordance with the Framework (NRC, 2011). The authors argue that a variety of technological applica- tions can be used to enhance STEM learning, such as digital timelines and video games, and urge the inclusion and modeling of content-specific pedagogical uses of technology in authentic contexts. In doing so, they provide theoretical and practical rationale for including DVGs, specifically for enhancing STEM literacy and STEM content knowledge, and developing STEM skills in teacher education. In outlining the development of DVGs, in this case Okazaki’s Revenge, the authors systematically demonstrate the potential of DVGs to address each of the STEM disciplines in a cohesive and comprehensive manner. The EDP is highlighted as a framework for effectively developing DVGs, as storyboarding and design docu- mentation parallel the processes inherent in engineering design (Truesdell, 2014). Computational thinking, and accompanying skills, including the ability to resolve problems algorithmically and logically are also inherent in the DVG development. Furthermore, mathematics and science are embedded throughout Okazaki’s Revenge; thus, conceptual understandings of science and mathematics are enhanced as players transfer their knowledge into new situations and apply it to new contexts, in this case DNA replication. The creation of DVGs were instrumental in: i) providing opportunities for teach- ers to engage in the process of developing educative materials linked to curriculum, as exemplified in Okazaki’s Revenge; ii) preparing them for using and modeling 6 Navigating Theory and Practice: Digital Video Games (DVGs) in STEM Education 101 technology effectively in their future practices by enhancing and expanding their skill sets, such as programming, storyboarding and utilizing the EDP; and iii) engaging in best practices associated with integrated STEM education. Particular tensions inherent in technology-focused activities, such as the DVG creation, are teachers’ self-efficacy and beliefs about technology, as these are strong predictors of technological integration in practice. In order to increase TCs’ self-­ efficacy and beliefs about the value of technology, as demonstrated in their reflec- tions, they should be exposed to and experience ample opportunities to plan and select appropriate pedagogical practices in STEM. Moreover, TCs will need to understand the relationship between the affordances of a range of technological applications and detailed knowledge of STEM concepts, processes and skills (DeCoito & Richardson, 2016). This was highlighted through the TCs’ acknowl- edgement of their initial lack of programming skills and their growth and matura- tion during their journey in conceptualizing and developing their DVGs. Teacher education is at a new crossroads of incorporating technology effectively into pedagogical frameworks in STEM (Fullan, 2012). It is apparent that opportuni- ties exist, such as DVG creation, that are catalytic for exploring new tools and pro- cesses to reinforce the alignment of technology and pedagogy in STEM teaching and learning. The authors contend that in order to achieve success in improving TCs’ beliefs and self-efficacy related to technology, any strategy implemented should be explicitly modeled across a variety of disciplines in teacher education programs. This aspect was intentionally implemented in the DVG assignment. It will also require that teacher educators examine their STEM literacy, and accompa- nying content knowledge and skills, as well as their self-efficacy and beliefs about the value of technology as it applies to STEM education. This in turn necessitates identifying and establishing a vibrant pedagogical foundation for STEM teaching and learning. 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Briona is the co-founder of Gamified Learning R&D. Her research focuses on engaging and retaining students by leveraging game mechanics in K-20 STEM education. She is the recipi- ent of several education and educational technology awards recognizing innovation in technology enhanced teaching.