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Chapter 5: Middle and Late Childhood Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective By Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French In this chapter: Physical development Cognitive development Brain maturation, sports, obesity Information processing, language development, intelligenc...
Chapter 5: Middle and Late Childhood Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective By Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French In this chapter: Physical development Cognitive development Brain maturation, sports, obesity Information processing, language development, intelligence Socioemotional development Erikson’s theory, self-esteem, peer and family relationships Learning objectives: Physical development in middle and late childhood Describe the changes in brain maturation Describe the positive effects of sports Describe reasons for a lack of participation in youth sports Explain current trends regarding being overweight in childhood, the negative consequences of excess weight, the lack of recognition of being overweight, and interventions to normalize weight Physical growth Growth rate continues to slow From 6-11 years grow about 2-3 inches in height and gain 5-7 pounds each year Growth spurt begins around age 9 in girls, 11 in boys Physical growth (continued) Muscle strength and lung capacity increase Ability to engage in strenuous physical activity improves Gross and fine motor skills improve Sex differences in motor skill performance Improvements due to experience and brain growth Brain development in middle/late childhood: Brain growth Frontal lobes become more developed (especially ages 10-12) Improvements in logic, planning, attention, and memory Myelination in: Association areas (areas where sensory, motor, and cognitive function connect) – Improves information processing speed and reaction time Hippocampus (transfers information from shortterm to long-term memory) Participation in sports: Possible benefits Higher levels of satisfaction with family Better overall quality of life Improved physical and emotional development Better academic performance Development of social skills Figure 5.2 Participation in organized and team sports (percent) by gender Figure 5.3 Percent of students participating in organized sports, by gender, race and ethnicity Participation in sports: Possible problems Too much emphasis on competition and athletic skill can decrease interest “Not having fun” most common reason for dropout Not all children have equal access to sports Gender, SES, location, ethnicity, and disability can limit opportunities Physical activity in children 25% of children count playing video games as exercise e-sports: Watching other children play video games Physical education in schools declined in recent years Increasing again due to health concerns Childhood obesity: Physical aspects Body Mass Index (BMI) – Ratio of height to weight Overweight = BMI at or above 85th percentile for age Obese = BMI at or above 95th percentile for age Associated with insulin resistance, inflammation, knee problems, cardiovascular disease Both in childhood and in adulthood Childhood obesity: Cognitive aspects Processed sugars and saturated fats linked to: Poorer relational memory skills Weakened blood-brain barrier in brain Overweight children have poorer executive functioning Problems controlling impulses and delaying gratification Childhood obesity: Psychosocial aspects Increased risk of depression and low selfesteem Increased risk of bullying and teasing “Oblivobesity” (Katz, 2015) – Lack of recognition that children are overweight or obese May prevent parents or children from seeking help Childhood obesity: Intervention and treatment Parents can encourage: Practicing inhibition Making good food choices Increasing physical activity Parents can avoid: Using shame and guilt Overemphasizing diet Learning objectives: Cognitive development in middle and late childhood Describe Piaget’s concrete operational stage and the characteristics of concrete thought Describe information processing research on memory, attention, knowledge base, metacognition, and critical thinking Describe language development and explain the three types of communication disorders Describe the theories of intelligence, including general “g”, triarchic theory, and Gardner’s multiple intelligences Explain how intelligence is measured, the tests used to assess intelligence, the extremes in intelligence, and the concern of bias Describe how language and culture influence the typical classroom Identify common disabilities in childhood and the Piaget’s concrete operational stage Use logical principles in solving problems involving the physical world Solve problems tied to their own direct experience Difficulty solving hypothetical/abstract problems Inductive reasoning – Multiple premises believed to be true are combined to obtain a specific conclusion Elements of concrete operational thought Classification – Understand hierarchies, subclasses Identity – Some qualities constant despite change Reversibility – Some things can return to original state if changed Conservation – Changing one quality can be compensated for by changes in another quality Decentration – Consider multiple dimensions Seriation – Arrange along quantitative dimension Figure 5.6 Classification of organisms Information processing Middle childhood shows improvements in: Attention Working memory Metacognition and use of memory strategies Mediation deficiency – Don’t understand why strategy is useful Production deficiency – Don’t use strategy without prompting Utilization deficiency – Use strategy ineffectively Knowledge base Critical thinking Table 5.2 Percent of children who did not use any memory strategies by age Age 6 7 8 9 10 Percenta ge 55 44 25 17 13 Language development in middle/late childhood Vocabulary growth – Know 40,000 words by age 9 New understanding of words Categories/uses of objects Less literal interpretation of meaning Better grammar Bilingualism Understanding/using two languages May not be equally used or proficient Bilingualism has cognitive advantages Better understanding of languages overall May help learn new words faster Communication disorders Fluency disorders affect the rate of speech Stuttering – Sounds, syllables, or words are repeated or last longer than normal Articulation disorder – Inability to correctly produce phonemes Voice disorders – Problems with pitch, loudness, and quality of the voice Theories of intelligence: General vs. specific General intelligence factor – Common ability underlying intellectual abilities Ability to learn, reason, and adapt Can be assessed by variety of tasks Specific intelligence – Measure of specific skills in narrow domains Theories of intelligence: Sternberg’s triarchic theory Analytical intelligence – Academic problem solving and performing calculations Creative intelligence – Adapt to new situations and create new ideas Convergent thinking – Looking for correct answer Divergent thinking – Generating many novel solutions Practical intelligence – Demonstrate common sense True intelligence involves balance of all three Table 5.3 Important components for creativity Compon ent Expertise Imaginati ve Thinking Risk Taking Intrinsic Interest Working in Description Creative people have studied and learned about a topic Creative people view problems in new and different ways Creative people take on new, but potentially risky approaches Creative people take on projects for interest not money The most creative people are supported, aided, and challenged by other people Theories of intelligence: Gardner’s multiple intelligences Eight intelligences separate from each other Unclear how many there actually are Intelligence vs. ability vs. talent? Table 5.4 Howard Gardner’s eight specific intelligences Intelligence Linguistic Logicalmathematical Spatial Musical Kinesthetic (body) Interpersonal Intrapersonal Naturalistic Description The ability to speak and write well The ability to use logic and mathematical skills to solve problems The ability to think and reason about objects in three dimensions The ability to perform and enjoy music The ability to move the body in sports, dance, or other physical activities The ability to understand and interact effectively with others The ability to have insight into the self The ability to recognize, identify, and understand animals, plants, and other living things Measuring intelligence Tests must be reliable – Consistent over time Tests must be valid – Measure intelligence, not something else Standardization Give test to people at different ages Compute average score each age level Flynn effect – Increased scores on intelligence tests due to better nutrition, education Intelligence quotient Measure of intelligence that is adjusted for age Mental age – Age at which a person is performing intellectually IQ = mental age ÷ chronological age × 100 Most modern intelligence tests based on the relative position of a person’s score among people of the same age (not this formula) Figure 5.13 Distribution of IQ scores in the general population Normal distribution – Most scores at middle, fewer at extremes Extremes of intelligence Intellectual disability Deficits in IQ and adaptive functioning (daily life tasks) About 1% of the population Caused by genetic and/or environmental factors Giftedness – IQ of 130 or higher Associated with good professional and social outcomes Need to be good in all areas or just some? How to address in educational settings? Education in middle and late childhood Parental involvement important but not always easy Work/transportation issues Teachers most receptive to parents similar to them Family capital – Power that can be used to improve a child's education Cultural differences can affect classroom behavior and performance Children with disabilities: What is a learning disability? Specific impairment of academic learning Interferes with a specific aspect of schoolwork Reduces a student's academic performance Not all learning problems are learning disabilities Sensory or motor impairments Language barriers Intellectual disability Children with disabilities: Types of learning disabilities Dyslexia – Difficulty reading Dysgraphia – Writing disability Phonological processing deficits common Often associated with dyslexia Dyscalculia – Difficulty with math May involve working memory and processing deficits Children with disabilities: Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder Inattention and/or hyperactive and impulsive behavior that interferes with normal functioning Associated with academic and social challenges May be caused by poor dopamine regulation, poor frontal lobe development Can treat with behavior therapy and/or medication Children with disabilities: Relevant legislation Americans with Disabilities Act (1990) – Schools need to be accessible (buses, ramps, technology) Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (1975) Free, appropriate public education up to age 21 Fair evaluation of performance Least restrictive environment Individualized education program Learning objectives: Socioemotional development in middle and late childhood Describe Erikson’s fourth stage of industry vs. inferiority Describe the changes in self-concept, self-esteem, and selfefficacy Explain Kohlberg’s stages of moral development Describe the importance of peers, the stages of friendships, peer acceptance, and the consequences of peer acceptance Describe bullying, cyberbullying and the consequences of bullying Identify the types of families where children reside Identify the five family tasks Explain the consequences of divorce on children Describe the effects of cohabitation and remarriage on children Describe the characteristics and developmental stages of blended families Erikson: Industry vs. inferiority Industry – Being busy and achieving goals May feel inferior if don’t measure up to peers Could affect future performance Self-understanding Self-concept – Beliefs about general personal identity More realistic than in previous ages Able to incorporate others’ perspectives Self-esteem – Evaluative judgment of self Self-efficacy – Belief that you are capable of achieving a specific task/goal Kohlberg’s stages of moral development Preconventional morality Conventional morality Focuses on self-interest (avoid punishment, get reward) Most common in children but can be seen in adults People care about the effect of their actions on others Obey rules, gain approval Postconventional morality Higher, universal ethical principle of conduct May or may not be reflected in the law Table 5.6 Lawrence Kohlberg’s levels of moral reasoning Age Young childrenusually prior to age 9 Moral Level Description Preconventio Stage 1: Focus is on self-interest and punishment is nal morality avoided. The man shouldn’t steal the drug, as he may get caught and go to jail. Stage 2: Rewards are sought. A person at this level will argue that the man should steal the drug because he does not want to lose his wife who takes care of him. Older children, Conventional Stage 3: Focus is on how situational outcomes impact adolescents, and morality others and wanting to please and be accepted. The most adults man should steal the drug because that is what good husbands do. Stage 4: People make decisions based on laws or formalized rules. The man should obey the law because stealing is a crime. Rare with Postconventi Stage 5: Individuals employ abstract reasoning to adolescents and onal morality justify behaviors. The man should steal the drug few adults because laws can be unjust and you have to consider the whole situation. Stage 6: Moral behavior is based on self-chosen ethical principles. The man should steal the drug because life is more important than property. Friends and peers Increasingly important for selfesteem Conceptualization of friendship changes with age Conceptualizations of friendship: Bigelow & La Gaipa (1975) Reward-cost – Friendship focuses on mutual activities Normative expectation – Focus on conventional morality Good friend = someone with similar interests Good friend = someone who’s kind and shares with you Empathy and understanding Good friend = loyal, committed, share intimate information Conceptualizations of friendship: Selman (1980) Stage 0 (momentary physical interaction) – Friend = who you are playing with right now Stage 1 (one-way assistance) – Friend = someone who does nice things for you Stage 2 (fairweather cooperation) – Friend = someone who treats you fairly Stage 3 (intimate and mutual sharing) – Friend = someone you can trust with secrets Stage 4 (autonomous interdependence) – Friend = someone who accepts you and vice versa Peer relationships and popularity Sociometric assessment measures attraction between members of a group Used to assess popularity in group settings Popular = many positive votes, few negative ones Rejected = many negative votes, few positive ones Controversial = many votes of both types Neglected = few votes of either type Average = some positive votes, very few negative ones Peer relationships and popularity (continued) Subtypes of popular and rejected children Popular-prosocial children – Good academic and social skills Popular-antisocial children – Often display relational aggression Rejected-withdrawn children – Shy, easy targets because they don’t retaliate Rejected-aggressive – Aggressive, loud, and confrontational Bullying Unwanted, aggressive behavior involving a real or perceived power imbalance May be verbal, physical, social Cyberbullying – Using electronic technology 20% of students in grades 9-12 experienced bullying and 15% experienced cyberbullying (Stopbullying.gov, 2016) Bullying (continued) Students perceived as “weak” or “different” at risk Many bullies have high selfesteem Many bullied children don’t ask for help Lack empathy, like to dominate Important to know warning signs Associated with depression, substance abuse, suicide Family life Berger’s family tasks: Providing food, clothing and shelter Encouraging learning Developing self-esteem Nurturing friendships with peers Providing harmony and stability Family life: Lesbian and gay parents Research shows little or no differences between children raised by same-sex or oppositesex parents Beliefs about same-sex couples may influence legal policies that affect families (e.g., adoption) Family life: Divorce Associated with increased risk of: Behavior problems Problems in adult relationships But most children of divorced parents do okay Quality of relationships important Amount of disruption/change important Child personality characteristics important Family life: Cohabitating and blended families Cohabitation may be short-lived and therefore disruptive to child Blended family – Includes kids from previous relationships Parents and kids may have different ideas about how stepparents “should” behave Stepparents may treat stepchildren differently from their own Managing feelings is important