Chapter 3 A&P Study Guide .docx

Chapter 3 A&P Study Guide Chapter 11 **1. Organization of the Human Nervous System** - - - - - - ### **2. Structure and Functions of a Neuron** **Draw and Label:** What Is a Neuron? Diagrams, Types, Function, and More - - - - - - - ### **3. Functions of Sensory, Mo...

Chapter 3 A&P Study Guide Chapter 11 **1. Organization of the Human Nervous System** - - - - - - ### **2. Structure and Functions of a Neuron** **Draw and Label:** What Is a Neuron? Diagrams, Types, Function, and More - - - - - - - ### **3. Functions of Sensory, Motor, and Interneurons** - - - ### **4. Functions of Glial Cells** - - - ### **5. Neuron at Rest** A neuron at rest is not transmitting a signal and has a resting membrane potential, typically around -70 mV, due to the distribution of ions across its membrane. ### **6. Membrane Potential** - - - ### **7. Membrane Proteins for Ion Gradients** - - ### **8. Types of Ion Channels** - - - - **Ion Movement:** Driven by electrochemical gradients. ### **9. Na+/K+ Pump Mechanism** - - ### **10. Depolarization and Hyperpolarization** - - ### **11. Action Potential Phases** **Draw and Label:** - - - - ### **12. All-or-None Principle** An action potential either occurs fully or not at all, depending on whether the threshold potential is reached. ### **13. Refractory Period** - - ### **14. Saltatory vs. Continuous Conduction** - - ### **15. Steps of Synaptic Transmission** 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. ### **16. EPSPs and IPSPs** - - Part 2 ### **1. Factors Impacting the Speed of Transmission in an Axon** **Key Factors:** - - - **Prediction of Conduction Speed:** - ### **2. Electrical vs. Chemical Synapses** **Electrical Synapses:** - - - - **Chemical Synapses:** - - - - ### **3. Synapse Locations** - - - - ### **4. Categories of Classical Neurotransmitters** **1. Amino Acids:** - **2. Monoamines:** - **3. Acetylcholine:** - **4. Neuropeptides:** - ### **5. Excitatory vs. Inhibitory Neurotransmitters** **Excitatory Response:** - - **Inhibitory Response:** - - **Determining Factor:** - ### **6. EPSPs and IPSPs** **Excitatory Postsynaptic Potentials (EPSPs):** - - **Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potentials (IPSPs):** - - **Nature:** - ### **7. Ionotropic vs. Metabotropic Receptors** **Ionotropic Receptors:** - - **Metabotropic Receptors:** - - **G Proteins:** - ### **8. Termination of Synaptic Transmission** **Mechanisms:** - - - ### **9. Summation** **Summation:** - **Temporal Summation:** - **Spatial Summation:** - ### **10. Neuronal Pools and Circuits** **Neuronal Pools:** - **Converging Circuit:** - **Diverging Circuit:** - Chapter 12 ### **1. Structures of the Central Nervous System (CNS)** - - ### **2. Protection of the Brain and Spinal Cord** - - - - ### **3. Structure and Function of the Meninges** - - - ### **4. Subarachnoid Space and Epidural Injections** - - ### **5. Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)** - - - - ### **6. Blood-Brain Barrier (BBB)** - - ### **7. Gross Anatomy of the Spinal Cord** - - - ### **8. Spinal Cord Enlargements** - - ### **9. Length and Termination of the Spinal Cord** - - ### **10. Horns of the Spinal Cord** - - - ### **11. Information Carried by Spinal Roots and Pathways** - - - - - - ### **12. Naming of Fiber Tracts in the Funiculi** - - ### **13. Structures of the Brainstem** - - - ### **14. Structures of the Diencephalon** - - - - ### **15. Structure and Function of Key Brain Structures** - - - - - - - ### **16. Reticular Formation and Reticular Activating System** - - Part 2 ### **Hypothalamus Functions** - - - - ### **Maintenance of Homeostasis** - - ### **Fever** - - ### **Importance of Sleep** - - - - ### **Cerebrum: Gray Matter and White Matter** - - - ### **Cerebral Cortex Structures** - - - - ### **Functional Areas of the Cerebral Cortex** - - - - - ### **Primary Motor Cortex** - - - ### **Motor Homunculus** - - ### **Descending Motor Pathway** - - - - ### **Basal Nuclei and Cerebellum** - - ### **Impact on Motor System in Movement Disorders** - - ### **Somatic Senses** - - - - - ### **Visual and Auditory Cortices** - - - - ### **Functions of the Prefrontal Cortex and Posterior Association Areas** - - - - ### **Lateralization** - - - - ### **Broca\'s and Wernicke\'s Areas** - - ### **Declarative vs. Non-Declarative Memory** - - Chapter 13 ### **Subdivisions of the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)** - - - - ### **Anatomy of a Nerve** - - - - - ### **Sensory, Motor, and Mixed Nerves** - - - ### **Cranial and Spinal Nerves** - - - - - - ### **Length and Structure of Spinal Nerves** - - - - - ### **Functions of Spinal Nerve Structures** - - - - - - ### **Nerve Plexuses** - - - - - ### **Cervical Plexuses** - - - ### **Brachial Plexuses** - - - ### **Lumbar Plexuses** - - ### **Sacral Plexuses** - - ### **Intercostal Nerves** - - - ### **Sensation Pathway and Sensory Transduction** - - ### **Receptor Potential and Adaptation** - - - - ### **Types of Receptors** - - - - - - - ### **Receptive Fields** - - ### **Dermatomes** - - ### **Referred Pain** - ### **Reflexes and Reflex Pathways** - - ### **Monosynaptic vs. Polysynaptic Reflex Pathways** - - ### **Muscle Spindles and Stretch Reflex** - ### **Golgi Tendon Organs** - ### **Flexion Reflex and Crossed Extension Reflex Pathways** - - Chapter 14 ### **Somatic vs. Autonomic Motor Systems** #### **Structure:** - - - - - - - - - - #### **Function:** - - - - - - ### **Higher Order Structures Regulating the ANS** - - - - ### **Sympathetic vs. Parasympathetic Nervous System** #### **Structure:** - - - - - - - - - - #### **Function:** - - - - - - ### **Neurotransmitters Used by Each System** - - - - - - - ### **Cholinergic Receptors** - - - - - ### **Adrenergic Receptors** - - - - - - - - ### **Agonists and Antagonists** - - ### **Interactions Between Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Divisions** - - - - - - ### **Autonomic Reflexes** - - - Chapter 15 ### **The Blind Spot** ### **Definition: The blind spot, or optic disc, is the area on the retina where the optic nerve exits the eye. There are no photoreceptors (rods or cones) in this area, so it cannot detect light, creating a gap in the visual field.** ### **Reason for Existence: The optic nerve needs to pass through the retina to reach the brain, creating a region devoid of photoreceptors, hence the blind spot.** ### **Anatomy of Photoreceptors** ### **Photoreceptor Structure:** 1. ### **Synaptic Terminals:** Connect to bipolar cells and horizontal cells, transmitting signals. 2. ### **Cell Body:** Contains the nucleus and other organelles. 3. ### **Inner Segment:** Contains mitochondria and other cellular machinery for photoreceptor function. 4. ### **Outer Segment:** Contains stacks of membrane discs with light-sensitive photopigments. ### **Rods vs. Cones:** - ### **Rods:** - ### **Location:** Predominantly in the peripheral retina. - ### **Function:** Highly sensitive to dim light, responsible for night vision. - ### **Anatomy:** Long and cylindrical with many discs containing rhodopsin. - ### **Color Vision:** Do not detect color. - ### **Cones:** - ### **Location: Concentrated in the fovea (central retina).** - ### **Function: Active in bright light, responsible for high-acuity and color vision.** - ### **Anatomy: Shorter, tapering outer segment with fewer discs containing photopsins.** - ### **Color Vision: Three types sensitive to different wavelengths (S, M, and L cones).** ### **High-Acuity Vision** ### **Area of Retina: The fovea is the central pit in the macula, densely packed with cones and responsible for sharp central vision.** ### **Light Focusing on the Retina** ### **Focusing Mechanism:** - ### **Distant Objects:** The ciliary muscles relax, the lens flattens, and the focal point moves back. - ### **Near Objects:** The ciliary muscles contract, the lens becomes more rounded, and the focal point moves forward. ### **Corrective Lenses** - ### **Hyperopia (Farsightedness):** Convex lenses converge light rays to focus on the retina. - ### **Myopia (Nearsightedness):** Concave lenses diverge light rays to extend the focal point onto the retina. ### **Astigmatism** ### **Definition: An irregular curvature of the cornea or lens, causing distorted or blurred vision at all distances.** ### **20/20 Vision** ### **Definition:** - ### **20/20 Vision:** Normal visual acuity, able to see at 20 feet what should be seen at that distance. - ### **Better than Normal:** For example, 20/15 vision means seeing at 20 feet what a normal person sees at 15 feet. - ### **Worse than Normal:** For example, 20/40 vision means seeing at 20 feet what a normal person sees at 40 feet. ### **Phototransduction** ### **Process:** 1. ### **Light Activation:** Light hits rhodopsin in the outer segment of photoreceptors. 2. ### **Photopigment Change:** Rhodopsin changes shape (11-cis-retinal to all-trans-retinal). 3. ### **Cascade Activation:** Activates transducin (G-protein), which activates phosphodiesterase. 4. ### **cGMP Breakdown:** Phosphodiesterase converts cGMP to GMP, lowering cGMP levels. 5. ### **Channel Closure:** cGMP-gated Na+ channels close, hyperpolarizing the cell. 6. ### **Neurotransmitter Release:** Reduced glutamate release in light. ### **Activity Levels in Light vs. Dark** - ### **In the Dark:** - ### **Photoreceptors:** Depolarized, releasing more glutamate. - ### **Bipolar Cells:** Hyperpolarized if OFF-center or depolarized if ON-center. - ### **Ganglion Cells:** Fewer action potentials in OFF-center, more in ON-center. - ### **In the Light:** - ### **Photoreceptors:** Hyperpolarized, releasing less glutamate. - ### **Bipolar Cells:** Depolarized if OFF-center or hyperpolarized if ON-center. - ### **Ganglion Cells:** More action potentials in OFF-center, fewer in ON-center. ### **Visual Pathway** ### **Pathway:** 1. ### **Photoreceptors → Bipolar Cells → Ganglion Cells: Signal transduction.** 2. ### **Optic Nerve:** Axons of ganglion cells. 3. ### **Optic Chiasma:** Some axons cross to the opposite hemisphere. 4. ### **Optic Tracts:** Post-chiasma pathways. 5. ### **Lateral Geniculate Nucleus (LGN):** Thalamic relay. 6. ### **Visual Cortex:** Processing in the occipital lobe. ### **Reason for Axon Crossing: Axons from the nasal retina (close to the nose) cross at the optic chiasma to ensure that visual information from each visual field is processed in the opposite hemisphere of the brain.** ### **1. Sound Waves and Their Properties** - - ### **2. Anatomy of the Ear** - - - ### **3. Path of Sound Through the Ear** 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. ### **4. Transduction of Sound Waves** - - - 1. 2. 3. 4. ### **5. Perception of Pitch and Loudness** - - ### **6. Central Auditory Pathways** 1. 2. 3. 4. ### **7. Types of Deafness** - - ### **8. Vestibular Apparatus Sensory Components** - ### **9. Maculae in the Saccule and Utricle** - - - ### **10. Semicircular Canals** - - -