Chapter 3-7: Learning, Cognition, and Personality Psychology PDF

CHAPTER 3. LEARNING PSYCHOLOGY LEARNING= Associa'on (Linking 2 s'muli to understand/predict an outcome) 1. PAVLOVIAN CLASSICAL inac+ve CONDITIONING: A neutral s'mulus becomes associated with a signiﬁcant one, leading to a condi'oned response. Example: a song linked to an emo'onal event. 1.1. GENERALIZATION: Responding to similar s'muli as if they were the same. a. Leap Associa>on: Extending fear to all dogs aFer being biGen by one. b. Over-Generaliza>on: Extending fear to all animals due to a dog bite. 1.2. EXPERIMENTAL NEUROSIS or Double bind: Confusion caused by contradictory s'muli, such as receiving conﬂic'ng instruc'ons from a superior: one posi've s'mulus is eliminated by a nega've one 1.3. DISTINCTION OF CONDITIONED STIMULUS: Recognizing a speciﬁc s'mulus in a complex environment, like iden'fying a familiar sound among noise. 1.4. PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SIGNALLING SYSTEMS Primary signalling systems Secondary signalling systems Universal signals understood without Signals reinforced by addi'onal cues, like a train's teaching, like traﬃc lights or warning signs. yellow line combined with a guard's whistle. 1.5. CLIMAXING CONDITIONED RESPONSES OR ENTROPY: progressive build-up of nega've or posi've responses basedon repeated experiences 1.6. CRAVING SYNDROME: Dependence on objects or habits that provide security, such as chocolate or social media, crea'ng withdrawal symptoms when absent. 1.7. SENSATION SEEKING: Engaging in high-risk or extreme ac'vi'es to seek joy, oFen linked to adrenaline- driven behaviors. 1.8. CONDITIONED REACTION: a. Erasure of a Condi>oned Reac>on: Counter-condi'oning to remove a learned reac'on: overcoming fear of school through repeated posi've experiences. b. Reappearance of a Condi'oned Reac'on: A previously erased reac'on re-emerges: relapsing into a phobia c. Dele>on of bad habits: If we get consequences from bad habits, then we will be torn to stop doing them 1.9. ATTITUDE LEARNING through experiences, observa'ons, and social inﬂuences, oFen resistant to change. a. Upraisals: Even if I know what's good for me, I don't reckon or apply it (smoking) 1.10. CONDITIONING OF PERCEIVING FUNCTIONS: Forming percep'ons of en're situa'ons based on prior experiences, like associa'ng a city with posi've memories. 1.11. FLASHBACK MEMORIES: Detailed recollec'on (remembering) of trauma'c or remarkable events. 1.12. IMPULSE LEARNING: Adap'ng behaviors impulsively due to environmental or social pressure, such as driving aggressively in heavy traﬃc. 1.13. MEANING CONDITIONING: Associa'ng events or objects with speciﬁc meanings. a. Collec>ve Level (associa>ons): Symbols like the Eiﬀel Tower represen'ng France. b. Individual Level (supers>>ons): Personal supers''ons, Friday 13th with bad luck 2. SKINNER Ac+ve condi+oning: Reinforcement and punishment 2.1. REINFORCEMENT a. Skinner: rewarding, ac.ve condi.oning (vs inac.ve Pavlovian condi.oning) b. Reinforcements can be: i. Primary (praise): You did great! ii. Ac'va'on (reward) iii. Informa'on (medal) iv. Secondary (success) Constant/Fixed Fixed intervals Varying intervals Constant ra>o Varying propor>on Mixed posi>ve Behavior that is Regular rewards like Uncertain 'ming of Rewards based Eﬀorts without Building complex consistently rewarded monthly salaries. rewards but guaranteed, on performance guaranteed behaviors step by becomes reinforced gym quality. rewards, prayers step through over 'me. An'bio'cs reinforcement of or paying bills on 'me each component. c. Posi>ve reinforcements: d. Nega>ve reinforcements: Avoiding unpleasant s'muli by changing behavior, painkillers to escape pain. 2.2. SHAPING: gradual crea'on of a new behavior by reinforcing successive approxima'ons toward the desired a. Shaping An>cipatory Behavior: Adjus'ng ac'ons based on future beneﬁts, healthy ea'ng for wellness b. Shaping Anxious Reac>ons: Developing anxiety from internal conﬂicts, complex tasks, or unpredictable events. 2.3. COUNTER-OFFENSIVE LEARNING: Adop'ng strict responses aFer running out of all op'ons, such as cu`ng oﬀ ﬁnancial support to an irresponsible adult child. 2.4. LEARNT... a. Inability to react: Giving up of the reac'on i. Global: Generalized, concerns others (I share my friend's secrets) ii. Specialized: Only concerns me (I share my own secrets) b. Helplessness: You give up what you were doing since it doesn't lead to success c. Impotence: When we believe we cannot accomplish an ac'on d. Op>mism (Coping): Fostering posi>ve a\tudes towards uncertain outcomes, believing in recovery from an illness 2.5. PUNISHMENT: Using nega've consequences to reduce unwanted behavior. a. Direct: Immediate consequences like ﬁnes. b. Indirect: Depriva'on or exclusion from beneﬁts or something that’s important to them. c. Learning through ignorance: Weakening a bad/unwanted behaviour by ignoring it 3. WATSON: Observa+on and modeling 3.1. SHAPING NEW BEHAVIOUR THROUGH OBSERVATION AND MODELLING: Adop'ng behaviors by watching and imita>ng others, oFen inﬂuenced by role models or peers. i. Related with ﬂow: So much focus on our task, that we dont care about rewards or recogni'on 3.2. INHIBITION AND RELEASING OF EMBEDDED BEHAVIOUR: exis'ng behaviour in the observer a. Inhibi>on: Suppressing natural behaviors in speciﬁc situa'ons, such as in front of a ﬁgure of authority b. Releasing: We violate or ignore something that belongs to our behavioral repertoire, vegan eats meat 3.3. SOCIAL FACILITATION AND INHIBITION OF ACTIONS: Encouraging or restric'ng ac'ons based on societal norms, such as recycling being promoted (facilita'on) or theF being punished (inhibi'on) 3.4. SELF-EFFICACY OR SELF VALUE: Belief in one’s ability to succeed without feedback 3.5. ARRANGING ENVIRONMENTAL SITUATIONS to aid the learning process, providing engaging tools for children. 3.6. EMOTIONAL AROUSING OF THE OBSERVER: Using emo>onal triggers to inﬂuence behavior, eery images on cigareGe packs. 4. BANDURIAN: 4.1. LOW AND HIGH TOLERANCE FOR FRUSTRATION: a. Low: Shock at unexpected nega've outcomes. b. High (Resilience): Despite bad condi'ons, one shows willingness to overcome adversion 4.2. FEAR AND DEPENDENCE LEARNING THROUGH OBSERVATION a. Fear learning: Acquiring fears by witnessing others’ fearful reac>ons b. Dependence learning: Developing habits or addic'ons by observing others, child of an alcoholics 4.3. ASSERTIVE TRAINING: Learning to claim one’s rights respechully without aggression or vic'miza'on. 4.4. MORAL BEHAVIOR: Ac'ons guided by personal beliefs of right and wrong, resistant to external pressures. CHAPTER 4. COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 1. Basic cogni>ve procedures to ﬁlter external s>muli 1.1. PERCEPTION = ﬁltering: the brain selects and organizes sensory s'muli, ﬁltering out irrelevant or excessive informa'on to focus on what is most important = memory loss and confusion 1.2. MEMORY = retainment: cogni've func'on of storing and recalling informa'on, inﬂuenced by both individual mental processes and sociocultural factors. 2. Ads and percep>on: Why do we need cogni>ve psychology applied to marke>ng? 2.1. We receive a vast array of ads daily but can only aGend a few, most of which are those that stand out for us since they resonate with personal experiences, or provide something innova've 3. Aeen>on 3.1. Sensorial and cogni've process that allows us to focus on speciﬁc informa'on while ignoring others a. Finite process: We aGend to a limited amount of info b. We must center it correctly: Only aGend to the informa'on that provides something for us 3.2. TYPES a. SELECTIVE: Focusing on 1 task while ﬁltering out distrac'ons i. Cocktail eﬀect: focusing on a conversa'on in a crowded room without hearing background noise ii. MAIN THEORIES: Broadbent's ﬁlter model Treisman's aeenua>on theory Kahneman's capacity model UnaGended s'muli are blocked UnaGended s'muli are NOT en>rely ﬁltered AGen'on is limited and varies and ﬁltered early out but weakened or leF in the background depending on arousal levels and the importance or Only selected s'muli is processed They are s'll somewhat processed diﬃculty of the task iii. OTHER: Models that describe our intake of new informa>on James-Lange Cannon-Bard Schachter-Singer Lazarus Zajonk-LeDoux Emo'ons = Physiological Emo'ons = result of 1. Cogni've appraisal Some emo'ons are result of responses and both physiological 2. Emo'onal and independent of physiological emo'ons occur at responses and physiological reac'on physiological responses the same 'me cogni>ve appraisal 3. Re-appraisal responses (fear) b. DIVIDED: AGen'on is split between 2+ tasks (mul>tasking) which leads to reduced performance c. SUSTAINED (Vigilance): Ability to maintain focus on a task for a long period of >me i. It's connected with FLOW: we lose our awareness of surroundings while focused 3.3. Aeen>on Economy: The commodiﬁca>on of human aGen'on, cri'quing constant distrac'on and data exploita'on in modern technology. 3.4. ADHD (Aeen>on Deﬁcit Hyperac>vity Disorder): A condi'on aﬀec'ng aGen'on, impulse control, and 'me management, oFen debated as either a medical issue or a societal construct 4. Sensory percep>on: Ini'al reac'on to sensory s'muli (e.g., visual, auditory, tac'le), forming the ﬁrst layer of informa'on processing 4.1. FIGURE-GROUND PERCEPTION: Ability to dis'nguish a focal object (ﬁgure) from its background 4.2. PERCEPTUAL DEFENSE AND VIGILANCE: Blocking out unwanted messages (defense) while remaining aGen've to important ones (vigilance) 5. Heuris>cs: Mental shortcuts for quick decision-making, oFen prone to biases (generalisa>ons and confusions) 5.1. TYPES a. availability: trus'ng more the most common or recently found resource b. anchoring: Relying on an ini'al reference point. c. representa>veness: Trus'ng processes or events that seem typical 5.2. DUAL PROCESS THEORY: Combines automa'c/implicit (unconscious) procedures with explicit/controlled (conscious) ones 6. Schemas: Mental frameworks (associa'ons) that help us organize and interpret informa'on based on prior knowledge and experiences 6.1. Gender schema (SANDRA BEM): Cogni've frameworks for understanding masculinity and femininity, shaped by societal norms and categorized into sex-typed, cross-sex-typed, androgynous, and undiﬀeren'ated types.. a. This can shape their behavior and lead to biases, reinforcing tradi'onal stereotypes about masculinity and femininity Heuris>cs Schemas Based on stereotyping Based on past knowledge 7. Embodied cogni>on (Margaret Wilson) 7.1. Cogni>on a. comes from the body (monism) Monism Body = Mind b. situated c. 'me-pressured Dualism Body ≠ Mind d. ac'on (reasoning) 8. Memory 8.1. 3 main processes of memory a. ENCODING: taking in info, automa'c or deliberate b. STORAGE: how we retain informa'on over 'me c. RETRIEVAL: recalling that informa'on 8.2. TYPES OF MEMORY a. SENSORY MEMORY: Short-lived memory that retains sensory info momentarily for quick processing i. It includes echoic (auditory) and visual components, and other senses that tend to be overshadowed b. SHORT TERM MEMORY i. Temporarily (15-30 seconds) holds limited amounts of informa'on (7+-2 items as per Miller's law) ii. Working memory (type of STM) that involves: (1) a phonological loop (processing verbal and auditory informa'on), (2) a visual-spa'al sketchpad (processing visual and spa'al data), (3) a central execu've, kind of a coordinator of the system that directs aGen'on c. LONG TERM MEMORY i. Explicit (Declara>ve): Conscious recollec'on of facts or events. Subdivided into: (1) Episodic Memory: Personal experiences (e.g., birthdays) (2) Seman>c Memory: General knowledge (e.g., Madrid is the capital of Spain) ii. Implicit (Non-declara>ve): Automa>c unconscious memories including: (1) Procedural Memory: Recalling tasks, skills and habits (playing an instrument, driving a car). (2) Priming: The exposure to 1 s>mulus inﬂuences the response to a subsequent s>mulus unconsciously (if shown the color yellow, then asked to recall 3 fruits, they will tend to be yellow) 8.3. Fundamental factors that inﬂuence memory a. Context b. Mo>va>on: aspira'ons, habits, lifestyles c. Mood inﬂuences the type of memories and their pervasiveness: Emo'onal content aﬀects memory d. Primacy and recency: Tendency to remember the ﬁrst and last items in a sequence beGer. 8.4. Memory loss: Inability to retain or recall informa'on a. Types of amnesia Type of Cause Characteris>cs Amnesia Anterograde Can't retain any new informa'on Can recall past events Injury-related Retrograde (amnesia) Can retain new informa'on Can't recall past events Dissocia've Blocking out speciﬁc events or >me periods to avoid distress due to trauma Psychological trauma Post-trauma'c (defense mechanism) Blocking out a broader period around the trauma (before/aFer), requires longer recovery Speciﬁc brain damage Lacunar Memory loss of a ONE par'cular event; the rest of memory remains intact or trauma Developmental Childhood Cannot recall memories from early childhood, before language development (language-related) Source Memory retrieval issue Retains knowledge but cannot recall the origin (when, where, or how it was learned) b. THE 4 A'S Condi'on Descrip'on - Aﬀects speaking, understanding, reading, or wri'ng Aphasia ➡ OFen due to brain injury in areas associated with language processing. - Percep'on issues despite intact sensory func'ons. Agnosia ➡ OFen due to brain injury in areas involved in sensory processing. Amnesia - Memory loss: inability to recall past events (retrograde) or form new memories (anterograde) - Loss of ability to perform skilled movements/gestures despite having the physical ability to do so. Apraxia ➡ OFen due to brain injury in areas responsible for motor planning. 9. Social aeribu>on theory by Fritz Heider who introduced the concept of Causal unit (how we understand each cause and eﬀect of an ac'on) and believed we prefer to aGribute behavior to 1 causal unit rather than mul'ple ones. 9.1. Rela>on with memory: Memory processes (schemes and prior knowledge) inﬂuence how we make these aGribu'ons, shaping our social judgments and reinforce biases. 9.2. ATTRIBUTION: how we assign causes to ours and others' behaviors. a. LOCUS OF CONTROL, the degree to which individuals believe they have control over the outcomes of events in their lives: Whether the cause to an event is i. internal: someone's mo'ves, a`tudes, personality ii. external: luck, environmental factors b. Fundamental Aeribu>on Error = Tendency to aGribute behaviour to internal causes, rather than external, due to our need to keep control of things while they're stable. 9.3. Weiner's Model added stability and controllability to the parameter of Locus of control (self-concept) a. STABILITY: Determines whether the cause is: stable (consistent over 'me) or unstable (subject to change). i. Aﬀects individuals' expectancy about future situa'ons. b. CONTROLLABILITY: Whether the cause can be regulated or controlled (eﬀort) or not (illness/weather) c. Yet this theory failed to describe how mo'ves and expecta'ons inﬂuence aGribu'ons and vice versa: our way of jus'fying ourselves has more to do with our aGribu'ons than those parameters. 9.4. RELATION WITH CSR: This theory is used to examine external and internal factors of CSR to describe the eﬀects that social endorsements have on consumers and their emo'ons, and understand how this rela'onship leads to what kinds of aGribu'ons. 10. Covaria>on model 10.1. How we aGribute one's or others' behavior to a cause by assessing how it varies across this 3 factors: a. Consensus: Does the person react in the same way to the same s'mulus? b. Consistency: Is this behavior repeated over >me? c. Dis>nc>veness: Does the person react similarly to diﬀerent s'muli? 10.2. CAUSAL SCHEMATA: frameworks we use to interpret behaviors or events, par'cularly in complex situa'ons. Two main types are: a. Mul>ple Suﬃcient Cause Schema: Mul'ple causes could independently produce the same eﬀect. i. If a student passes an exam, it might be due to eﬀort, luck, or easy ques'ons b. Mul>ple Necessary Cause Schema: Mul'ple causes must work together to create an eﬀect. i. A car accident could require mul'ple factors like road condi'ons, car issues, and speed to occur together for the accident to happen. 10.3. Overes>ma>on and Underes>ma>on (Principles of Aeribu>on) a. Discoun>ng (Underes>ma>on): AGribu'ng less weight to a cause when other factors could independently lead to the outcome. i. Assuming John’s success was due to easy ques'ons, not his eﬀort. b. Augmenta>on (Overes>ma>on): AGribu'ng more weight to a singular cause when 1 factor could have prevented the outcome. i. If exam ques'ons are par'cularly diﬃcult, prepara'on may be overes'mated as the main reason for success because it would have been challenging to succeed otherwise. 11. ATTRIBUTION BIAS 11.1. SELF-SERVING BIAS to protect our self-esteem: Tendency to aGribute a. Failure to external, unstable and uncontrolable factors (the exam was hard, the teacher is bad, it’s not my responsibility) = we aGribute it to others b. Success to internal, stable and controlable factors (it was the driver’s fault, not the car’s or the road’s; unemployment is the person’s fault) = we aGribute it to ourselves 11.2. CULTURAL BIAS (illusion of universality: false consensus eﬀect): tendency to believe that our behaviour is common among our community or society a. Individualis'c cultures (western) exhibit more aGribu'on biases than collec'vist ones, 11.3. OUTCOME BIAS: AGribu'ng responsibility based on outcome, not ac'ons. 11.4. OPTIMISM BIAS (defensive aGribu'on): Good things happen to good people and bad things to bad people. 11.5. ILLUSION OF CONTROL: Overes'ma'ng our ability to control events, to believe nothing bad's gonna happen 11.6. COGNITIVE DISSONANCE - CONFIRMATION BIAS: Conﬂict between our beliefs and our ac'ons, crea'ng psychological discomfort and insecurity within us that we naturally try to avoid or reduce it by: a. changing our beliefs to match our ac'ons b. changing our behavior to match our beliefs and a`tudes (hardest way: requires eﬀort and consistency) 12. OTHER BIAS: a. Implicit bias (unconscious): automa'c, unconscious biases (gender, racial, towards social minori'es...) b. Priming and anchoring biases i. Priming: when exposure to one s'mulus inﬂuences how we respond to subsequent s'muli ii. Anchoring bias: rely on the ﬁrst piece of informa'on (the "anchor") when making decisions, even if the anchor is irrelevant or arbitrary. c. Aﬃnity bias: tendency to favor people who are similar to us in any way (appearance, background,interest) d. Physical aerac>veness bias: tendency to aGribute posi've quali'es to those who are physically aGrac've e. Hindsight bias: Viewing past events as predictable (“I knew it”) f. Loss aversion or status quo bias: tendency to remain the same rather than risk changes, avoiding losses over acquiring equivalent gains. g. Dunning-Kruger eﬀect: individuals with low competence overes'mate their skills (overconﬁdence eﬀect) and those with high competence underes'mate them h. Framing eﬀect: Decisions are inﬂuenced by how informa'on is presented i. Müller-Lyer Illusion: visual illusion where 2 lines of the same length appear diﬀerent due to the shape of the arrowheads at each end. Shows how framing and context can distort our percep'on j. Stroop eﬀect: diﬃculty of naming colors when the color of the text mismatches the word (e.g., the word "RED" printed in blue) k. Change blindness: Failure to no'ce changes in a visual scene when aGen'on is directed elsewhere. CHAPTER 5. SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 1. Social psychology: Field that studies the social applica'ons of psychological procedures (thoughts, emo'ons, behaviors) 2. Levels of a\tude and social analysis: the onion principle 2.1. Intrapersonal: our needs, desires, thoughts, mo'va'ons 2.2. Interpersonal: in>mate rela'onships, bonds and interac'on with others within our community 2.3. Interpersonal: rela'ons between communi'es considering roles, posi'ons, class issues & power dynamics 2.4. Structural: how societal structures (power and poli'cs) impact individual behaviors and interac'ons 3. ATTITUDES: Predisposi'ons/tendencies to respond in certain ways when exposed to a social situa>on/s>mulus 3.1. Rela'vely permanent (unlike feelings or thoughts), abstract, and help categorize the world. 3.2. Can align with or conﬂict with behavior. 3.3. Act as a mediator between the informa'on we receive and our reac'on to it: whether we accept or reject it, how we interpret it, and the intensity of our response. 3.4. FUNCTIONS: a. Adap>ve: help us achieve our goals b. Cogni>ve: oﬀer us knowledge c. Defensive: self-protec'on to help us maintain self-esteem and resist info that may threaten our beliefs d. Orienta>ve: make us approach situa'ons in alignment with our values 3.5. A`tudes and Cogni>ve dissonance: The discomfort felt when a\tudes and behaviors conﬂict, leading individuals to adjust a`tudes or ac'ons according to the choices made for consistency 3.6. ATTITUDE CHANGE: a`tudes dont only change because of dissonance but also: a. Classical condi'oning: posi've or nega've s'muli b. Opera'onal condi'on: reinforcement or punishment c. Anchoring (persua'on: assimila'ng new informa'on into exis'ng beliefs. d. Detailed elabora'on of possibili'es e. Perceived behavioural control aﬀects our a`tudes by inﬂuencing beliefs about one’s control in social aeribu>ons (outcomes) and how facilita'ng or obstruc'ng external factors are (perceived facilita>on) 4. VALUES: Deeply rooted convic>ons/opinions, central to our belief system that deﬁne our goals and behaviors. 4.1. They are hierarchically established and introjected through learning to guide us into diﬃcult/contradictory situa'ons 4.2. Schwartz's Value Types: a. Self-Direc>on: Mo'va'on. b. S>mula>on: Seeking new experiences. c. Hedonism: Pleasure and enjoyment. d. Achievement: Success and competence. e. Power: Social dominance. f. Security: Stability and safety. g. Conformity: Respect for norms. h. Tradi>on: Preserving customs. i. Benevolence: Caring for close others. j. Universalism: Concern for broader humanity. 5. BELIEFS: Assump>ons or convic>ons held to be true, based on experience. 6. REPRESENTATIONS: Mental imagery or frameworks used to interpret the external world (our personal way of describing and explaining it to ourselves) a. Include both abstract (no'ons) and concrete (images) elements. b. Born in communica'on and interac'on: Deﬁne group iden>>es and boundaries, create shared understandings but also limit perspec'ves by enforcing stereotypes or divisions 7. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ATTITUDES, VALUES AND BELIEFS Aspect A`tudes Values Beliefs Representa'ons Contextual and Broader and more Speciﬁc objects, issues, or situa>onal, 'ed to Contextual: reﬂect cultural and Focus abstract: ideal behaviors situa'ons speciﬁc experiences or individual inﬂuences and goals. events. Dynamic and malleable: Rela'vely permanent but can Deeply rooted and less Flexible and contextual, depend on the context (familiar Permanence change with persuasion or likely to change; changes inﬂuenced by new and cultural) cogni've dissonance. may cause signiﬁcant guilt. evidence/experiences Inherited by culture Predispose individuals to Moral framework that Just a basis for Direct and signiﬁcant impact on Role in ac'on but do not necessarily inﬂuences decisions understanding and behavior: they organize social Behavior lead to it. strongly. interpre'ng the world and cultural understanding Provide the knowledge or Built from a`tudes, values, and Rela'on to Expressions of values: their Founda>ons for forming/ assump>ons a`tudes beliefs: shape how these are Each Other prac'cal applica'ons. maintaining a`tudes and values rely on applied in context. "Being healthy is associated with "I like exercising because it makes "Health is essen.al to living a Examples me feel good." good life." "Exercising improves health." natural, peaceful environments, like the countryside." 8. Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Discrimina>on 8.1. Stereotypes: Overgeneralized beliefs about a group. 8.2. Prejudice: Nega've a`tudes based on stereotypes. 8.3. Discrimina>on: Social exclusion based on prejudice. 9. Measuring a\tudes: 9.1. Thurstone Scale: Measures degrees of agreement categorically (0= nega've, 6= neutral, 12= posi've) 9.2. Likert Scale: Measures a\tudes, opinions, percep>ons by asking to rate the level of agreement on a con'nuum. Has 5 steps i. Prepara>on: designing the ques'ons ii. Coun>ng and evalua>on of responses iii. Selec>on of relevant data, organizing them based on certain criteria iv. Final measurement: coding (assigning numerical values to each response: 1 for "Strongly Disagree," 5 for "Strongly Agree") + counter coding for nega'vely phrased ques'ons v. Calcula>on of the a`tude 9.3. Gueman Scale: Hierarchical evalua'on requires answer all versions with slight diﬀerences 9.4. Osgood Scale: Measures a`tudes on opposing dimensions (e.g., important-unimportant). 9.5. Bogardus Scale: Measures closeness to others (e.g., willingness to interact with diﬀerent social groups). 10. Consumer A\tudes: A`tudes toward products, brands, or services. 10.1. The Consumer Behavior analysis can be done: before the launch of a campaign, during the purchasing process (paGerns, trends) or post-purchase 10.2. Measurement Tools: Quan>ta>ve: Qualita>ve: Net Promoter Score (NPS) measures customer loyalty, classifying them into 3 categories: Focus groups and 1. Promoters (9–10): Loyal customers likely to recommend. interviews explore 2. Passives (7–8): Sa'sﬁed but indiﬀerent customers. the reasons behind 3. Detractors (0–6): Unhappy customers may damage the brand with nega've feedback. choices, oﬀering richer insights Customer Feedback Surveys provide real-'me insights about customers’ experiences with P&S CHAPTER 6. CONSUMER BEHAVIOR 1. CONSUMER BEHAVIOR: The study of how individuals or groups select, purchase, use, or dispose of products and services to sa'sfy needs and desires. 2. Asch’s Experiments: Compliance with group norms due to peer pressure, even when one believes the group is wrong. 3. Persuasion and Inﬂuence: Techniques used to change a\tudes or behaviors through communica'on and meaning-making strategies. 4. Cogni>ve Dissonance: Mental discomfort caused by conﬂic>ng beliefs and behaviors. People shiF either their beliefs or their behaviors to reduce the discomfort 5. Yale Persuasion Model 5.1. Persuasion Steps: a. Aeen>on: Capturing the consumer's focus. b. Comprehension: Ensuring the message is clear. c. Agreeableness: Gaining consumer acceptance. d. Reten>on: Helping consumers remember the message. 5.2. Traits: a. Source Traits (who): Credibility, aGrac'veness, authority of the message sender. b. Message Traits (what): Emo'onal vs. logical appeals, one-sided vs. two-sided arguments. c. Audience Traits (to whom): Personality, interests, and prior knowledge of the target audience. 5.3. Cri>ques: presupposes a standard consumer prototype (highly archetypal) 6. Social Judgment Theory: Anchoring Points deﬁne how we’re going to process persuasive messages: a. La>tude of Acceptance: Messages aligned with current a`tudes are assimilated. b. La>tude of Rejec>on: Messages far from our a`tudes are dismissed. c. La>tude of Non-Commitment: Neutral or ambiguous messages can shiF a`tudes. 7. Heuris>c-Systema>c Model 7.1. Systema>c Processing: In-depth, eﬀorhul analysis of message content. 7.2. Heuris>c Processing: Mental shortcuts for easy quick decision-making 8. Elabora>on Likelihood Model (ELM) 8.1. Central Route (similar to systema'c processing): High mo>va>on and deep processing of content a. lead to las>ng a`tude changes 8.2. Peripheral Route (similar to heuris'cs): Reliance on superﬁcial cues (e.g. speaker's aGrac'veness), a. leading to less stable a`tudes 9. Theory of Planned Behavior: Behavior is determined by inten'ons, planned behavior, inﬂuenced by: a. A\tudes (social): Evalua'ons and predisposi'ons toward behavior. b. Subjec>ve Norms (iden>tarian): Social pressures and expecta'ons. c. Perceived Behavioral Control (cogni>ve): Beliefs about one's ability to perform the behavior. 9.2. CRITIQUES: Diﬃcult to dis'nguish personal from imposed a`tudes 10. TOOLS TO INFLUENCE CONSUMER BEHAVIOR: 10.1. Cialdini’s Principles of Inﬂuence: Consumer purchasing decisions can be inﬂuenced by techniques such as reciprocity, scarcity or authority to generate impact and persuade eﬀec'vely. a. Reciprocity: Obliga'on we feel to return favors or giFs. b. Commitment and Consistency: People commited to a cause are more likely to follow through c. Social Proof: The eﬀect of peer pressure and others' tes'monials in shaping consumer behavior. d. Authority: Trust in credible or authorita>ve ﬁgures. e. Liking: Aerac>veness (design, color, typography, composi'on) or similarity increases persuasiveness. i. Halo Eﬀect: Cogni've bias where aGrac'veness lead to assump'ons of overall goodness. f. Scarcity: Limited availability creates a sense of urgency and makes the product seem more valuable. 10.2. Others: a. Message conciseness: We process informa'on beGer when it is presented in a clear and concise way. b. Emo>onal Impact: use of emo>ons to create a deeper connec>on with the brand. c. Knowledge of target audience: Understanding consumer mo'va'ons and needs for tailored messaging. d. Personaliza>on and Segmenta>on: Tailoring messages and strategies to speciﬁc audience groups for maximum impact. e. Reten>on and Loyalty: Fostering long-term consumer rela'onships through emo'onal connec'ons, personalized experiences, and strong customer service to prevent compe'tors from "stealing" loyal customers. f. Decep>on and Ethical boundaries: transparency, ethical and ecological produc'on, avoiding misleading or manipula've techniques. CHAPTER 7. PERSONALITY PSYCHOLOGY BASICS 1. IDENTITY: The sense of self, encompassing individual self-percep>on and the roles within social groups. 1.1. Real (Embodied and personally lived) vs. Given (Imposed by external factors or others' percep'ons) Iden'ty 1.2. James Marcia's Iden'ty Forma'on: a. Achievement: Commitment to choices aFer explora'on b. Moratorium: Explora'on without commitment c. Foreclosure: Commitment without explora'on d. Diﬀusion: Lack of explora'on or commitment. 1.3. CRITIQUES a. many theories oversimplify iden'ty by focusing too narrowly on surface func'ons. b. cultural biases: Western, individualis'c values don’t easily apply to collec'vist cultures. c. ﬁxed or stage-based models: iden'ty forma'on doesn’t always follow a ﬁxed sequence. 2. Developmental Psychology: Iden'ty = qualita've linear process of acquiring important skills 2.1. Piaget’s 4 Stages of COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT: a. Sensorimotor: Mere interac'on with the environment. b. Preopera>onal: Use of symbols to represent reality. c. Concrete Opera>ons: Logical and rule-based thinking. d. Formal Opera>ons: Abstract and hypothe'cal reasoning. 2.2. Erikson’s Stages: Challenges across life stages to integrate iden'ty. Stage Virtue Descrip'on Infancy (0–1) Hope Trust (or mistrust) that basic needs (nourishment and aﬀec'on), will be met Early Childhood (1–3) Will Develop a sense of independence in many tasks Play Age (3–6) Purpose Take ini'a've may develop guilt when unsuccessful School Age (7–11) Competence Develop self-conﬁdence when competent or sense of inferiority when not Adolescence(12–18) Fidelity Experiment with and develop iden'ty and roles can lead to confusion Early Adulthood (19–29) Love Establish in'macy and rela'onships with others can lead to isola'on Middle Age (30–64) Care Contribute to society and be part of a family Old Age (65+) Wisdom Assess and make sense of life and meaning of contribu'ons 3. Social Iden>ty: How individuals deﬁne themselves rela've to groups they belong to (na'onality, religion) 3.1. Group Membership: Shapes self-esteem and values, we deﬁne ourselves by the groups we associate with 3.2. Ingroup vs. Outgroup Dynamics: a. Ingroup bias: Favori'sm toward one's group. b. Outgroup bias: Prejudice against outsiders. 3.3. Social Iden>ty Theory (Tajfel & Turner): People seek to enhance their group's status since it boosts personal self-worth, poten'ally leading to compe''on with others when threatened. 3.4. 8 types of Consumer Iden'ty (VALS System): a. Innovators: Resourceful and achievement-oriented. b. Survivors: Focused on security and prac>cality. c. Thinkers: Value tradi'on, responsibility, and durability. d. Believers: Loyal and predictable. e. Achievers: Driven by success and image. f. Strivers: Trendy and social. g. Experiencers: Adventurous and social. h. Makers: Prac'cal and self-reliant. 4. PERSONALITY: Trait Theories 4.1. Caeell’s Theory: Source (+ important, less obvious underlying) vs Surface Traits (evident & observable) 4.2. Eysenck’s Model: Known for using factor analysis to group behaviors into factors with clinical value a. Extraversion (Impulsive and op'mis'c) vs. Introversion (reserved, quiet and serious) b. Neuro>cism (emo'onally overeac've) vs. Stability (less reac've, calmness) 4.3. Psychometric theory: we are deﬁned by a series of stable characteris'cs that predispose us towards concrete reac'ons. Emphasis on measuring personality through psychometric tests 4.4. Allport’s Theory: a. Cardinal Traits: Dominant traits shaping life. b. Central Traits: General characteris'cs inﬂuencing behavior. c. Secondary Traits: Context-speciﬁc behaviors. 4.5. Maslow's hierarchy needs 4.6. Big Five Personality Traits (OCEAN): a. Openness: Curiosity and crea'vity. b. Conscien>ousness: Discipline and organiza'on. c. Extraversion: Posi'vity, sociability and asser'veness. d. Agreeableness: Compassion and coopera'on. e. Neuro>cism: Emo'onal instability and impulse control. High neuro'cism = depression, anxiety 4.7. Values and Consump>on: Link to Products a. Healthy living: Nutri've products. b. Freedom: Niche or unconven'onal brands. c. Pleasure: Indulgent items like chocolate or ice cream. d. Friendship: Socially shared items like beer or games. 5. Psychodynamics: focuses on understanding the unconscious mind and how it inﬂuences personality and behavior. 5.1. Unconscious Mind (ICC) = repressed thoughts, desires, memories that inﬂuence behavior unknowingly 5.2. Unconscious reac'ons are connected with our senses, our predisposi>ons and our automa>c set of responses to external s'muli: We normally go with our ins'nc've response, but when we do we feel the need to jus>fy our gut feeling. 5.3. Freud’s Theory: a. TOPICS i. First Topic: Divides the psyche into: (1) Conscious: Immediate awareness. (2) Preconscious: Memories and thoughts accessible with eﬀort. (3) Unconscious: Repressed, inaccessible thoughts and desires. ii. Second Topic: Introduces the Id (ins'ncts), Ego (reality), and Superego (morality). iii. Unconscious Reac>ons: Ins'nc've responses connected to sensory inputs, emo'ons, and predisposi'ons. b. Freud and Marke>ng: Dreams, Humor, and Symbols carry meanings crea'ng an unconscious chain 6. Psychoanaly>cal Perspec>ve suggests that consumer choices are not always ra'onal and are heavily inﬂuenced by emo'ons and unconscious factors. 6.1. Intersubjec>ve Perspec>ves: The self is constructed through interac'ons, language, and context. 7. Personality Disorders: PaGerns of behavior that deviate from cultural norms and impair func'oning. 7.1. Liminality: A state of being "in-between," leading to self-destruc'veness or fragility. 7.2. Personality disorders are more common than perceived. 7.3. Dissocia've Iden'ty Disorder (DID) is not a personality disorder; it involves mul'ple iden''es 8. Brand Personality: Brands adopt traits such as sincerity, excitement, competence, sophis'ca'on, and edginess to make it relatable and engaging. 8.1. MBP (Masculine BP: Asser've, strong, and powerful) vs FBP (Feminine BP: Warm, caring, and nurturing) CHAPTER 1. 1. DEFINITION OF PSYCHOLOGY 1.1. DEFINITION: Scien&ﬁc study of the directly observable behavior and mental processes that can be inferred by observable conduct 1.1.1. It is a science: follows the scien&ﬁc method 1.2. AIM: Predict, describe and explain people’s behavior taking into account the social context where it occurs 1.2.1. We have biological (reproduc&on and survival) and psychological func&ons 1.3. Branches: a. Research: obtaining knowledge = the basis of how we feel, think and behave b. Applica&on of research: Solu&on of prac&cal and speciﬁc problems 1.4. Dimensions of analysis 1. Cogni&ve: Thoughts 2. Mo&va&onal-afec&ve: how we feel 3. Behavioral Linked and interact with each other Inﬂuenced by social context and the person itself 1.5. SIMPLE AND COMPLEX PROCESSES 1.5.1. Human brain works by processes a) COMPLEX: ( Lev Vygotsky) (1) Uniquely human (2) Commonly used in cogni&ve psychology and neuroscience (3) Result of human evolu&on, through natural selec&on and evolu&on theory (the survival of the ﬁVest). (4) Formed and mediated by symbols (5) Emerge through social interacSon and regular brain development. (6) Occur due to the connec&on of diﬀerent areas of the cortex, which integrate several input allowing highly processed abili0es like language. (7) Percep&on AVen&on Emo&on Mo&va&on Learning Memory... b) BASIC: (1) Shared with many animal species (2) We are born with them (3) Language Thought Decision Making A_tudes Imita&on Abstrac&on... 2. DIFFERENT SCHOOLS IN PSYCHOLOGY: The theore&cal PARADIGMS of Psychology throughout history 2.1. Origin 2.1.1. Etymology: “Psykhe” = soul and «logos» = science or study 2.1.2. At the end of XIX c. the study of the “soul” became the study of the “consciousness”: it became a science, it became experimental (physiology as the basis) a. First experimental lab created in Lepzig (Germany) back in 1879 2.2. Structuralism (Wundt, Ebbinghaus, 1879) 2.2.1. Popular in Europe 2.2.2. Wundt: Based in introspecSon and self-observaSon a) Methods later cri&cized for being inexact and subjec&ve b) Aimed to iden&fy the internal “components” of the brain and discover the very general laws of it. 2.2.3. Ebbinghaus: inves&ga&on about memory 2.2.4. Animals started to be used in tests to try to give to psychology scien&ﬁc creden&als. 2.3. DiﬀerenSal (Darwin and Galton, CaVell, 1900) 2.3.1. Human beings are diverse (Darwin theory of evolu&on): their behaviors and skills are strongly aﬀected by geneSc heritage and they have a strong adap&ve aim (survive and reproduc&on). 2.3.2. Study of individual diﬀerences started with Galton (cousin of Darwin) = father of psychology a) First to realize individual diﬀerences and their role in the adapta&on of the ﬁVest 2.3.3. J. CaVell introduced mental and IQ (intelligence) tests in America (previously used in France by Alfred Binet) to recruit soldiers in WWI a) High cost and supported racial supremacism. 2.4. FuncSonalism (W. James, 1900) 2.4.1. Popular in America 2.4.2. Movement opposed to structuralism 2.4.3. Pragma&sm: Psychology must focus on what is funcSonal (what works) 2.4.4. Studies consciousness processes and how they help the adaptaSon to the diﬀerent contexts. a) Focused on speciﬁc brain funcSons b) Aimed to develop tools that could be prac&cal in real life. 2.5. Psychoanalysis (Freud) 1/2 Basis of Psychology 2.5.1. FUNDAMENTAL DISCOVERY: there are mental processes that we DO NOT control because they operate out of our conscious level. 2.5.2. Behavior is subject to several opposing forces that clash inside our personality which is dynamic and essen0ally conﬂic0ve. 2.5.3. Life as a war between a) Willingness (desire, mo&va&on): what we want to achieve b) Power (possibili&es): what we CAN achieve c) Social norms and context 2.5.4. THOUGHTS a) Thoughts (par&cularly unconscious) are threatening so we tend to hide them b) Psychoanalysis studies our defensive mechanisms that we use to keep these out of our conscious level) such as neglec&on, repression, sublima&on an/or projec&on. (1) The “id” (ello): ‣ the only thing that child have at birth. ‣ determined by the 2 basic ins&ncts: sexual and aggression (Eros and Thanatos) (2) The “ego” (yo): the conﬂict between willing and being able to do. ‣ guided by reality and possibili&es. (3) The “superego”: the result of having internalized social conducts and norms that we are not aware of at a conscious level. ‣ guided by externally. 2.6.Gestalt = shape, form (Koqa, Berlin School of experimental psychology, 1920) 2.6.1. AIM: Understand the laws behind our ability to acquire and maintain meaningful percepSons in an apparently chao&c world. 2.6.2. BASIS: Our mind forms a global whole with self-organizing tendencies. a) Human mind (perceptual system) forms a percepSon or "gestalt" (the whole), that has a reality of its own, independent of the parts. 2.7.Behaviorism (B.F. Skinner, Pavlov, 20s-60s) 2/2 Basis of Psychology 2.7.1. Psychology as the natural science that only focuses on what can be observed, a physical reality (behavioral responses) a) Thus, Psychology can only be researched through experimental research b) They reject the study of the mind, thoughts and feeling. 2.7.2. Behavior shaped and controlled by context: Every individual = the result of their condi@oning learning history (ins0nct doesn't exist for behaviorist). 2.7.3. PSYCHOLOGY'S OBJECTIVE: describe, predict and explain people's Behavior (posi&vism). 2.7.4. BEHAVIOR MODEL: SSmulus-Response (S > R) mechanism. a) Based on it, Behavior = the response that individuals (humans and animals) give to the various s0mulus around them. b) Psychology is now reduced to a study of the diﬀerent sSmulus and responses and how they interact with each other (1) The basic mechanism is the ASSOCIATION: We learn by associaSng sSmulus to responses. (2) They are 2 types of associa&on: ➡ Classical CondiSoning (CC) learning mechanism i) We learn by conSguity, repeSSon and space-temporal associaSon of diﬀerent sSmuli. ii) Ivan Pavlov's dog and bell experiment: The dog learns the meaning of the bell through a condiSon reﬂexion: AssociaSve learning iii) Organism = a sum of their historical condi&onings. ➡ OperaSonal or Instrumental CondiSoning 2.8. CogniSvism (early 60s-80s) 2.8.1. Reac&on to Behaviorism 2.8.2. S-O-R models (S&mulus – Organism – Response) 2.8.3. Humans are not a mere consequence of S0mulus/Response condi0oning, they can modify s@muli internally. 2.8.4. Aim on conceptualizing the learning process: Learning as a process based on a) what the learner already knows (exisSng informa&on) b) their method of acquiring new knowledge (how they integrate it into their exis&ng schemas) 2.8.5. Aims to explain the process of knowledge acquisiSon based on internal psychological processes a) Interest in cogniSve processes between S and R, including aVen&on, memory, percep&on, thought, language and a_tudes. 2.9. Humanism (60s-70s) 2.9.1. Reac&on to Behaviorism 2.9.2. An&-psychiatry movement (Connected to the hippie movement): Against psychiatric diagnosis, labeling of pa&ents 2.9.3. According to this theory, a) People need to be studied individually: Behavior is guided by the image of the self, by subjec@ve percep0ons of the world and by the need of personal growth. b) People must use their creaSvity to develop, ﬁnd their own poten&al and maximize their capaci&es to achieve selfrealizaSon. 2.9.4. Rejects physical or psychological determina&on and stresses freedom of choice. 2.9.5. For humanism psychologists, self-concept, self-esteem, self-realiza&on, etc. are important concepts we need to work on. They are based on an ideographic focus: (every person is unique) and, therefore, it has to be analyzed under its own singularity. Although they are probably more important Psychologist than him, this school of thought is well known by one of them, Abraham Maslow 2.10. PosiSve Psychology (Mar&n Seligman, 90s) 2.10.1.Reac&on against psycho-analysis and behaviorism:They focused on "mental illness" and emphasized maladap&ve behavior and nega&ve thinking 2.10.2.Its founda&on is the humanisSc movement, which emphasized happiness, well-being and posi&vity 2.10.3.The scien&ﬁc study of what makes life worth living, of posiSve human funcSoning and ﬂourishing on mul&ple levels and dimensions of life (biological, personal, rela&onal, ins&tu&onal, cultural, and global) 2.10.4.Concern with eudemonia: A reﬂec&on about those factors that hold the greatest value in life and contribute to a fulﬁlling life. 2.11. EclecSc approach (2000s) 2.11.1.Nowadays, clinical, organiza&onal and educa&onal psychologists use diﬀerent technics from diﬀerent historical schools (paradigms), recognizing their par&al validity 3. SOCIALPSYCHOLOGY PERSPECTIVE 3.1. DeﬁniSon 3.1.1. Branch of psychology that establishes a rela&on between psychological processes and the social context. a) We behave and feel diﬀerently depending on the context: The way we think, feel and behave vary depending on where we are and with whom we are b) Our presence also inﬂuences others. 3.1.2. BASIS: According to psychology, the way we think, feel and behave (3 dimensions of Psychology) are a consequence of one of these 3 factors: a) The inﬂuence of others on us (The group) b) Our personal abili&es. c) Our biological heritage. 3.2. Role of evoluSon in social psychology 3.2.1. Why the human brain has evolved so rapidly? Basically there are two diﬀerent evolu&on theories. a) THEORY 1 - CompeSSon: The brain capacity had to adapt to a more complex environment (ecological intelligence) b) THEORY 2 - CooperaSon: The evolu&on in the brain capacity has to do with the need to communicate and coordinate with others (social intelligence) 3.2.2. Current evolu&onary psychologist think that both capaci&es are fundamental to explain evolu&on: Many experiments show how we tend to beneﬁt our group and discriminate other groups 3.3. Fields of study: a) Conformity, persuasion, power, inﬂuence, obedience. b) Prejudice, discrimina&on, stereotypes. c) Nego&a&on, media&on. o Sexism, racism. d) Behavior in small groups, personal and social iden&ty, social categories. e) Rela&onships intra groups, individual behavior in masses, conﬂict, and harmony, social change, psychosocial and communitarian interven&on. f) Leadership, communica&on, language, culture. g) A_tudes, impressions, self-concept, self-esteem, iden&ty. h) AVrac&on, friendship, love, romance, sex, violence, altruism and interpersonal rela&onships. 3.4. Early history on the subject 3.4.1. Norman Tripplet (1897): 1st experiment of Social Psychology a) He studies if the performance (speed and eﬀort) of sportsmen when they were biking was beker when they were alone or in a group. => He conclude the eﬀort increased 3.4.2. Experiment of the rope (early XX) a) He studies if the performance was beker when they were performing in groups => He conclude the eﬀort diluted when the number of members increased: 1p 100%, 2pp 93%, 3pp 85% and 8pp 49% CHAPTER 2 Rela&onship between these concepts 1. Mo&ve = Mo&on = Something that moves 2. Both are things that moves us forward 3. While, E in Emo&on means external, mo&va&on can come internally 1. PSYCHOLOGY OF MOTIVATION 1.1. What is moSvaSon: 1.1.1. Reason for people's ac&ons (behaviors): What drives us, the root of human behavior 1.1.2. Need or desire to do anything: Why certain people repeat a given behavior. 1.1.3. It can be extrinsic (inspired by others or by external events) or intrinsic (it may come from within the individual) 1.1.4. Mastering it allows sustained and produc&ve prac&ce, essen&al to high levels of achievement 1.1.5. It implies those physical changes that move us towards a goal 1.1.6. Sa&sfac&on or dissa&sfac&on may increase people’s mo&va&on for change 1.1.7. A cycle by which thoughts inﬂuence behaviors, performance aﬀects thoughts: each stage formed by elements like a_tudes, beliefs, inten&ons, eﬀort, and withdrawal. 1.1.8. Its key components are AcSvaSons, persistance and intensity: Needs => AcSvaSons, persistance and intensity => Goals 1.2. AcSvaSon 1.2.1. Mo&va&on ac&vates arousal: the higher the arousal (mo&va&on), the higher the performance. 1.2.2. However, performance doesn’t increase indeﬁnitely: A. Yerkes-Dodson Law: The rela&onship between performance and mo&va&on forms an inverted U 1. There is a point in which mo&va&on may spark stress and produc&vity decreases 2. More mo&va&on ≠ always higher performance 3. Diﬀerent tasks require diﬀerent levels of arousal for op&mal performance: ‣ Intellectually demanding tasks require a lower level of arousal (to facilitate concentra&on) ‣ Stamina or physical eﬀort tasks are performed beVer with higher levels of arousal 1.3. Diﬀerence between needs and desires Needs Desires: The transla&on of a need in the shape of a product Both imply a lack of something Lack that is necessary for a sa&sfactory life (secondary Things that people want in life but are not a threat to survival needs) or simply to live (survival/basic needs) Universal: We all need them Personal: They vary from person to person 1.4. Types of moSvaSons Primary motivations Social motivations Biological needs: vital for survival Secondary needs Shared with animals Acquired through socializa&on Hunger, thirst, sleep, physical healthiness, sexual ac&vity, Curiosity, pres&ge, acceptance, love, belongingness to temperature, etc. groups, self-esteem, selfactualiza&on, power… 1.5. Types of needs 1.5.1. For Keynes, a) Generic, universal and objec&ves needs: stable, can be reduce to a small number of them and common to all human beings (1) Related to physical health and autonomy. b) Deriva&ve needs: heterogeneous, diverse, unstable and dependent on the speciﬁc social context. (1) Desires are subjects of the demand of speciﬁc products. 1.5.2. For Galbarith, adver&sing can generate arSﬁcial desires which are rela&ve, speciﬁc for diﬀerent groups 1.5.3. According to Katona, the access to market goods is a collecSve right. a) Adver&sing can’t produce needs although it can detect unsa&sﬁed needs and create products to fulﬁll them 1.6. Theories about moSvaSon 1.6.1. First theories believed that the moSvaSonal thrive (the acSvaSon) came from our insSncts. a) William James: Humans have a lot of physical and psychological ins&ncts. (1) All that is required to translate an ins&nct into a goal oriented (mo&vated) behavior is the presence of a given sSmulus, generated by a set of complex reﬂexes inherited through evolu&on that generate speciﬁc ac&ons or reac&on to s&muli such us chasing, escaping, hun&ng, etc. (2) Outdated theory: it explains a very limited set of behaviors in humans. 1.6.2. HomeostaSc theories (Hull, Freud, Lewin) a) Came from insSnct theories: Mo&vated behaviors are caused by physiological imbalances such as hunger, thirst or sex. b) Human organism is understood as a homeosta&c system that tries to maintain a constant state of equilibrium, through homeostasis, a regulatory process in the body. c) Certain external or internal events (cold, hunger, fear, etc.) alter our balance and produce an internal state of tension (a need) that generates an impulse to act to restore balance, sa&sfying the need d) CRITICS: Behavior doesnt always follow internal mo&va&ons and some social situa&ons (secondary or psychosocial needs) can even modify the primary moSves and conduct behaviors that are not “biologically logical or reasonable” e) EXAMPLE: Homeosta&c process of stress reduc&on to regain balance: (1) We start in homeosta&c equilibrium (2) An event triggers an imbalance (3) This imbalance causes a need (4) The need causes a state of tension (5) The subject will be mo&vated to reduce that tension through some behavior (6) When the tension is reduced, this will cause a saSsfacSon and return again to the state of homeosta&c calm 1.6.3. Behavioral Theories (Skinner) a) A{er homeosta&c theories, behaviorist proposed a new way of understanding the mo&va&onal process b) Behaviorism said that Psychology could only study what can be observed and measured. (1) Therefore, internal states (the ones that Homeosta&c theories referred to) can’t be studied from a scien&ﬁc pov since they are not observable c) According to them, mo&va&on can only be studied through observed behavior determined by external sSmuli and rewards or punishments (extrinsic moSvators) d) The incen0ve pulls the behavior: Behaviors are inﬂuenced by the consequences of people's ac&ons e) CRITICS: Mo&va&ons are not only based only on reinforcements and punishments (extrinsic rewards) but also on cogniSve, emoSonal and social variables (intrinsic reasons) 1.6.4. CogniSve Theories (McClelland) a) The study of mo&va&on is oriented towards the internal and raSonal cogniSve (thoughts), emoSonal (feelings) and social processes that ini&ate and direct behavior b) Mo&va&on originates in the search for saSsfacSon of 3 dominant needs (achievement, power and aﬃlia&on), of which one is the primary one, dif for each person since children Need of achievement Need of power Need of aﬃliaSon Degree of diﬃculty with which a person How a person inﬂuences and controls the Search for love and acceptance of performs high level tasks and goals. behavior of others others Characteris&cs of people highly mo&vated in each need - Desire to succeed (high performance) a. Personal power: Desire to inﬂuence others - Desire to like and be accepted - Desire for personal responsibility b. InsStuSonal: Desire to organize the whole - Conformity with group norms - Need of feedback - Coopera&on, not compe&&on c) Theories like Theory of Expecta&on-Value tried to calculate moSvaSon using numeric values cogni&ve (thoughts), emo&onal (feelings) and social the cogni&ve expectaSons The mo&va&onal the consequences of the behavior (the value = (subjec&ve probabili&es of * force depends on of incen&ve, of mee&ng those expecta&ons) achieving the expecta&on) DIFFERENCES BETWEEN BEHAVIORISM AND COGNITIVISM Mo&va&on Goals Focused on the instrumental outcomes - Behaviorism - Extrinsic Doing the ac&vity is instrumental: it has a purpose dont sa&sfy our basic needs Focused on the outcomes that directly Cogni&vism - Intrinsic Doing the ac&vity is saSsfying sa&sfy our basic needs 1.6.5. Humanist Theories: Maslow's pyramid of needs a) Humans have 5 levels of mo&va&on in hierarchical order: b) CRITICS: Non-universal nature, there are needs that belong to diﬀerent ladders. 1.7. Involvement 1.7.1. Concept in Consumer Psychology that refers to an unobservable state of moSvaSon, that marks the rela&onship between a consumer and a par&cular product or category (Dubois and Rovira, 1999). 1.7.2. In Marke&ng we dis&nguish low involvement or high involvement categories: The involvement of an individual directly aﬀects their behavior towards a given product or category. a) The more involvement, the higher the purchasing risk and the emo&onal consequences of a purchase decision: Consumers buy certain products a{er an ac&ve and intensive search for informa&on, processing it and making a decision. 1.7.3. Involvement can be measured in 4 diﬀerent dimensions: 1. risks incurred due to the nega&ve consequences in case of poor choice; 2. the probability of an error in the decision 3. the value (or symbolic value) aVributed by the consumer to the product; 4. the hedonic value of the product (its emoSonal potenSal and its capacity to provide pleasure). 1.8. Impulse 1.8.1. In our society, there is a high frequency of impulsive and unreasonable purchasing behaviors 1.8.2. Needs have turned into desires: consumers have moved from purchasing what is needed to what is desired; 1. from the objec&ve value of a product to the subjecSve; 2. from the func&onal and ra&onal characteris&cs, to the importance of the consumer experience and the associated subjecSve, emoSonal and symbolic components (Klein, 2001). 1.8.3. Impulse purchasing has 5 remarkable characteris&cs: 1. The consumer has a spontaneous desire (an unstoppable force, a sudden sense of urgency) to buy, 2. This desire leads to a state of psychological imbalance where feelings are temporarily out of control 3. The consumer may experience a psychological conﬂict by weighing immediate sa&sfac&on against the long-term consequences of their purchase. 4. Impulse purchasing minimizes the cogni&ve evalua&on of the product: Consumes buy impulsively without any considera&on about future consequences 2. PSYCHOLOGY OF EMOTIONS 2.1. What are emoSons 2.1.1. Emo0on comes from "movere" (to move) + preﬁx "Ex" (from one place to another) a) Therefore, Emo&on = something that takes one out of its usual state. Emo&ons are.... 2.1.2. Psychophysiological reacSons to a sSmuli, short lasSng and with a great intensity a) Psychologically, they alter aVen&on, raise certain behavior (guiding the individual's responses) and acSvate associaSve networks b) Physiologically, they organize the responses of diﬀerent biological systems, including facial expressions, muscles, voice, ac&vity of the SNA and the endocrine system, etc, with the aim of establishing an op&mal internal environment for most eﬀecSve behavior. 2.1.3. A program that directs the interacSons of dif subprograms: aVen&on, memory, mo&va&on a) They have a cri&cal inﬂuence in many other processes, such as, decision making process (buying) 2.1.4. A process that involves several steps: (1) Detec&on of relevant s&muli (2) Subjec&ve interpreta&on (3) Appraisal or evalua&on (4) Ac&va&on (5) Emo&onal expressions (6) Mo&va&on (7) Adapta&on 2.2. FuncSons 2.2.1. Adapta&on: they prepare the person for an external new scenario 2.2.2. Social: tell others how the person feels 2.2.3. Mo&va&onal: they increase (or decrease) energy levels 2.3. Related concepts Emo&on Feeling Mood Reac&on to a s&mulus Result of taking awareness of the emo&on It is a general mood state. Speciﬁc cause Speciﬁc cause No speciﬁc cause Short las&ng and very intense Longer las&ng It can last days and less intense 2.4. Types of emoSons Primary (Universal) Secondary (Social, moral or self-conscious) They emerge during the 1st moment of life They emerge as a result of socializaSon and the development of cogniSve abiliSes. The emergence of personal iden&ty is needed: The kid must have internalized certain social norms in order to assess their behaviors according to them. Anger, surprise, disgust, fear, joy and sadness Guilt, shame, pride, jealousy, arrogance, etc. (According to Paul Ekman (pioneer, 20thc.)) Primary emo&ons can mix to obtain the secondary ones, like colors: The emo&onal reac&on can be the result of the mixture of these primary emo&ons and personal characteris&cs. 2.5. FuncSons of each emoSon 2.5.1. According to the evolu&onary perspec&ve, all emo&ons have an adapSve func&on = they have helped individuals to survive and adapt to new circumstances over the past millions of years. Adap&ve behavior Emo&on Protec&on Occurs in response to pain or threat of destruc&on. Fear, terror Destruc&on Designed to destroy whatever prevents the sa&sfac&on of an important need Anger, rage Reproduc&on Any behavior associated with sexual acSvity Joy, ecstasy Reintegra&on Response to a loss of something nutrient Sadness, grief Incorpora&on The acceptance of a s&mulus. Acceptance, trust Rejec&on Removal of something that has been accepted, but turned out to be harmful Disgust, loathing Explora&on Behavior displayed when organisms explore or examine their environment Expectancy, an&cipa&on Orienta&on The brief response (stopping) to a new sSmulus (not yet classiﬁed as beneﬁcial or harmful) Surprise, astonishment 2.6. Theory of Appraisal (Lazaru) 2.6.1. We make cogni&ve assessments (evalua&on, appraisal) to an&cipate our reac&on to emo&ons. a) That is, a subjecSve esSmaSon of what we think is going to happen in a certain situa&on. 2.6.2. Appraisal theories suggest that our feelings depend on the interpretaSon of these circumstances. 2.6.3. Origin: a) These theories belong to the cogniSvist school (due to its evaluaSve nature), b) Emerged as a challenge to behaviorism: they considered it was impossible to measure emo&ons 2.6.4. Strategies a) Based on these appraisals (evalua&ons), a person can an&cipate whether they have the necessary tools to deal with situaSons of a challenge or threat or not and, following the evalua&on, they will take a series of coping strategies to protect themselves. b) They can be divided in those: (1) that have to do with the emoSonal coping of the problem (2) those that have to do with trying to solve the problem. 2.6.5. The result of the evalua&on may end up in: a) A challenge: situa&on that poten&ally cause loss or harm but that the individual believes he can solve b) A threat: he believe believes the damage may likely occur c) A loss: if the situa&on will, for sure, create a damage 2.6.6. Stress or anxiety are not emo&ons 3. HOW EMOTIONS APPLY TO MARKETING 3.1. Emo&ons are v. important for adver&sers but there are several limita&ons when it comes to evalua&ng them: 3.1.1. People do not know or do not want to say what they feel using ques&onnaires. 3.1.2. The interviews are not a good system to capture the emo&ons of others 3.1.3. There are problems to measure subconscious processes. 3.1.4. There may be social desirability: try to please the experimenter or give answers that are well perceived socially 3.2. Techniques to study emoSons 3.2.1. There are both quan&ta&ve and qualita&ve techniques to capture emoSonal complexity that combine: a) physiological studies: Electrical ac&vity of the skin, heartbeat, neuromarke&ng… b) cogniSve studies: Interviews and self-administered ques&onnaires c) behavioral studies: Purchasing paVers, reac&on &mes, ﬁdelity… 3.2.2. A very common tool nowadays in Marke&ng is self-administered ques&onnaires using Likert scales: 3.2.3. And now even more neuromarkeSng techniques are star&ng to be used for campaigns 3.3. Appraisal and saSsfacSon in low involvement situaSons 3.3.1. There are 2 types of emo&onal processing, a) the computaSonal or conscious in high involvement situa&ons b) the automaSc or unconscious in low involvement situa&ons where there is no strong mo&va&on/ implica&on 3.4. EmoSonal contagion: Emo&onal situa&ons can be contagious, posi&ve emo&ons increase posi&ve emo&ons and reduce nega&ve ones (and vice versa) 3.5. AdverSsement 3.5.1. Types a) The one that appeals to emoSons b) The one that appeals to raSonality/conscious processing 3.5.2. Studies show that campaigns that appeal to emo&ons and feelings (A) are more eﬀec&ve than B and even if combined. 3.5.3. In adver&sing there can be an emo&onal response to: a) the brand or product (trust and aﬀec&on): Evalua&ve or aVribu&onal responses (1) Can be measured through Likert ques&onnaires b) the adverSsing itself (nostalgia, humor, fear, etc.): Observed responses (1) Can be measured using the emo&onal wheel 3.6. Eﬀect of emoSons on memories 3.6.1. Posi&ve emo&ons are beVer processed in posi&ve mood states and the recovery of posi&ve informa&on is more likely in those states. HIGH COGNITIVE ACTIVATION LOW COGNITIVE ACTIVATION HIGH EMOTIONAL ACTIVATION High involvement purchase Impulse purchase LOW EMOTIONAL ACTIVATION RaSonal purchase Low involvement purchase 3.6.2. Most of the current Marke&ng campaigns try to elicit emoSons in the viewers 3.7. RelaSonship between cogniSon and emoSon 3.7.1. Riener, Stefanucci, Proﬃt y Clore experiment proved that cogniSons and emoSons are strongly linked. 3.8. EmoSonal Intelligence (EI) 3.8.1. DEF. The capability of individuals to recognize their own emoSons and those of others, label them appropriately and use this emoSonal informaSon to: a) guide thinking and behavior, b) manage/adjust emoSons to adapt to environments or achieve one's goal(s) c) enhance thought and understanding of interpersonal dynamics. 3.8.2. This deﬁni&on was later broken down into 4 abiliSes: perceiving, using, understanding, and managing emo&ons 3.8.3. PsychoanalySc Theories (Freud) a) Psychoanalysis analyzes mo&va&ons star&ng in the unconscious levels: psychological factors unknown to the subject but that inﬂuence their behavior. b) Freud started from the existence of a mo&va&ng force (the libido) which aims to sa&sfy 2 basic ins&nc&ve tendencies, both in tension with the self regulated by reason and reality: (1) the drive-ins&nct of sexual-life (Eros) (2) the drive of death-aggressiveness (Thanatos), both are in tension with the self regulated by reason and reality. c) Freud: ELLO - EGO - SUPEREGO VS Current: INTENTION/IMPULSE- EGO- SOCIAL NORM (others) d) Psychoanalysis had a lot of inﬂuence on subliminal adverSsing: Good adver0sing = awakening a desire, mo0va0on or need by presen0ng objects, images or arguments that are inscribed in the depths of the psyche, so that the individual moves towards the object of their desires.

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