Chapter 10 Motivation & Emotion - Weiten for Students PDF

Chapter 10 Motivation & Emotion Test is chapters 8-10  (This will be on the test Motivation For example, Aron Ralston found the motivation to cut off his own arm when trapped on a cliff in Utah in 2003. What motivated him to do this? Hunger? The d...

Chapter 10 Motivation & Emotion Test is chapters 8-10  (This will be on the test Motivation For example, Aron Ralston found the motivation to cut off his own arm when trapped on a cliff in Utah in 2003. What motivated him to do this? Hunger? The drive to survive? The drive to reproduce?  Defining Motivation this definition memorize Motivation – An inferred process within a person or animal that causes movement either toward a goal or away from an unpleasant situation Loading… – Study of motivation dominated by focus on drives: biological urges, such as those to acquire food & water, to have sex, to seek novelty, and to avoid cold and pain – But motivation is more than just biological drives  What is Motivation? A process that influences: – The direction – The persistence – The vigour of goal-directed behaviour. Psychologists who study motivation identify factors that move us toward our goals  What Is Motivation? Miller (1962) described motivation as: Loading… “the study of all those pushes and prods--- biological, social and psychological---that defeat our laziness and move us, either eagerly or reluctantly, to action.  o test Theories of Motivation Do Instincts Direct Human Behavior? An instinct is a fixed (rigid and predictable) pattern of behavior that is not acquired by learning and is likely to be rooted in genes and the body. Human “nesting” Instinctual behavior nesting Instincts > - Evolutionary Perspective Other species have genetically programmed instincts “motivating” their actions. Do humans? Human babies show certain reflexes, but in general, our behavior is less prescribed by genetics than other animals. We may, however, have general patterns of behavior which can be explained as emerging through natural selection. Instinct theory has given way to evolutionary theory in explaining human behavior.  Drive Reduction A drive is an aroused/tense state related to a physical need such as hunger or thirst. Drive-reduction theory refers to the idea that humans are motivated to reduce these drives, such as eating to reduce the feeling of hunger. This restores homeostasis, a steady internal state.  Drives “Push” and Incentives “Pull” Incentives are Drives are based external stimuli that on inner needs and either appeal to our can be seen as a needs or trigger our force “pushing” aversive feelings, from inside of us. and can be used to “pull” us in our actions. For example: we have a drive to have food, or money we can exchange for food. employers can use the prospect of a raise in (or elimination of) salary as an incentive for us to follow employer goals and policies.  Arousal Theory are motivated to We Weare motivated to pursue an optimum an optimum level levelofof Stimulation stimulationCarousal) (arousal). Loading… Some motivated behaviours increase arousal Some motivated behaviours decrease arousal Seeking Optimum Arousal Some behavior cannot be easily connected to a biological need, and instead seems driven by a need to either increase or decrease our physiological arousal level. Curiosity, as with kids and these monkeys, may be a way of increasing stimulation to reach an optimum arousal level.  Yerkes-Dodson Law Yerkes-Dodson Law states that performance on task is best when the arousal level is optimal for that specific task.  Incentive Theory Motivation to reach goals may vary depending on the source: – Intrinsic motivation: the pursuit of an activity for its own sake and the pleasure it brings – Extrinsic motivation: the pursuit of an activity for external rewards, such as money or fame or to avoid punishment  Incentives Primary incentives - rewards or punishments that are innate Secondary incentives - cues that are viewed as rewarding as a result of learning about their association with other events  Example: Poker and Perspectives on Motivation Research indicates that extrinsic rewards reduces intrinsic motivation more strongly when they are tangible (e.g. prizes) and the individual expects rewards to be offered How would this relate to parenting?  Hierarchy of Needs/Motives In 1943, Abraham Maslow proposed that humans strive to ensure that basic needs are satisfied before they find motivation to pursue goals that are higher on this hierarchy. Violating the Hierarchy? Do hunger strikers and mystics feel secure enough in meeting their needs that they can do without food temporarily to pursue a higher goal? Soldiers sacrifice safety, but could they be seen as fighting for safety, both indirectly (protecting the country) and directly (defeating the people shooting at them)? A closer look at one need/motive: Hunger Research on hunger is consistent with Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy: In one study, men whose food intake had been cut in half became obsessed with food. Hunger even changes our motivations as we plan for the future.  The Physiology of Hunger Initiating hunger Stopping eating – Decreases in blood – Stomach and intestinal glucose levels are distention detected by liver sensors, which convert stored – Peptides sent into nutrients back into bloodstream as food glucose arrives in intestines – Drop-rise pattern of from the stomach glucose may be a signal of “hunger” to the brain – Not “hunger pangs” &Zempk is reducing Peoples interest In addiction to alcohol... etc. drugs gambling , ,  Dysfunction of the Hypothalamus The larger rat had its ventromedial hypothalamus destroyed Prader-Willi Syndrome causes unstoppable appetite – related to hypothalamus dysfunction? The Hypothalamus and Hunger Receptors throughout the digestive system monitor levels of glucose and send signals to the hypothalamus in the brain. The hypothalamus then can send out appetite- stimulating hormones, and later, after eating, appetite- suppressing hormones.  Set Point Set point – Genetically influenced weight range for an individual – Maintained by biological mechanisms that regulate food intake, fat reserves, and metabolism – Varies about 10% in either direction – Associated with high levels of heritability – Related to genetically programmed basal metabolism rate – Genes appear to account for 40-70% of the variation in body mass among men and women Copyright © 2019 by Nelson Education Ltd. 24 Which foods to eat? Taste Preferences Some taste preferences are universal. Carbohydrates temporarily raise levels of serotonin, reducing stress and depression. Other tastes are acquired and become favorites through exposure, Some culture, and conditioning. cultures find Different cultures these foods to encourage different be delicious: tastes. reindeer fat and berries, or roasted guinea pig. Biology, Evolution, and Taste Preferences Differences in taste preferences are not arbitrary. Personal and cultural experience, influenced by biology, play a role. We can acquire a food aversion after just one incident of getting sick after tasting a food. It is adaptive in warm climates to develop a taste for salt and spice, which preserve food. Disliking new tastes may have helped to protect our ancestors.  Mindless Eating Brian Wansink (Cornell University) – Mindless eating research – What are the environmental and psychological factors that contribute to how much and when we eat Size of our plates, presence of others, food variety etc Influences on Eating Behavior  Obesity refers to an amount of body fat that increases the risk of health problems to the point that weight loss is a health priority. Loading… Obesity is linked to diabetes, heart problems, arthritis, and some cancers. Is Fat Bad? Having some body fat is normal and healthy; fat stores energy effectively for later use. ⑪ Body fat has been seen as a sign of affluence, and thus has been considered attractive. e Standards vary in different cultures, sometimes creating an S unhealthy norm of being overweight or underweight. Being mildly overweight is not considered a problem if the person is in good physical condition or exercising. Obesity and Life Expectancy  Obesity and Weight Physiology of Obesity Control Once a person is obese, losing weight is not so easy as “just eating less.” How does obesity develop, Fat has a lower metabolic rate then other and why is it hard to change? tissue, so a person might gain weight when eating It was adaptive for our ancestors “normally.” to crave energy-rich food when Eating less to lose available. weight slows metabolism. This Problem: energy-rich ‘junk’ prevents weight loss, and food is now easily available, and ensures weight gain cheaper than healthy food when returning to a normal diet. It is adaptive to slow down our Even if weight loss burning of fat when food is succeeds, a formerly scarce. obese person will have to eat less than an average Problem: in poverty or in crash person just to prevent diets, our body can slow down weight gain.  weight loss Genetics and Obesity Social Psychology Adopted siblings eating the same meals of Obesity end up with a BMI/weight resembling Discrimination based biological parents, not people in the same on weight has been household. found to be stronger Identical twins have similar weights, even when raised apart with different food. than race and gender discrimination. There seem to be many genes with effects on weight. In one study, actors were seen as less Lifestyle Factors and Obesity employable when made People who are restless and fidgeting burn to look heavier. off more calories and gain less weight than Even children are others. prejudiced against the Inadequate sleep causes weight gain, overweight. despite increased active time, because of appetite hormones. Perhaps as a result, Having an obese friend correlates with people who are obese becoming obese. are more likely to be Sedentary lifestyles and fast food may be depressed or isolated. leading to increased body fat worldwide.  Culture & Weight Cultural changes linked to increased weight: – Increased abundance of fast food – Habit of eating high-calorie/fat food on the run – Use of energy-saving devices – Speed & convenience of driving rather than walking – Growing sizes of typical food servings of food & drink – bigger emphasis on “the best value” – Preference for watching television & videos rather than doing anything active, more sedentary  Culture of Consumption Eating habits & activity levels shaped by cultural customs and standards of ideal body – Fat may be sign of health & affluence in men; sexual desirability in women – English Canadians hold negative attitudes towards obese people – People on farms used to eat for intrinsic reasons but now more extrinsic motives  Gender & the Ideal Body Cultural ideals for women have been getting thinner, with large breasts but no hips Cultural ideals for men are to have strong, muscular bodies Changes in body norms shift with gender & social roles (e.g., woman’s role being home or work?) Differences in weight satisfaction between men & women influence weight norms Other Human Motivations: Sex & Love  Motives to Love Types of love: – Passionate (romantic) love Love characterized by a whirlwind of intense emotions and sexual passion It is the stuff of crushes, infatuations, “love at first sight”, and the early stage of love affairs – Companionate love Love characterized by affection and trust  Motives to Love Biology of Love – Neurological origins of love begin in infancy with attachment relationships with mother – Key neurotransmitters & hormones involved in pleasure and reward involved in mother-baby and adult bonds E.g., oxytocin & endorphins – Similar patterns of neurological activation in the brain  Motives to Love Psychology of Love – Proximity effect: the people who are nearest to you geographically are most likely to be dearest to you too – Similarity effect: similarity in looks, attitudes, beliefs, values, personality, and interests, is attractive to human beings We tend to choose friends and loved ones who are most like us  Attachment Theory of Love Attachment theory of love – People’s attachment styles as adults derive in large part from how their parents cared for them Secure: rarely jealous, compassionate, helpful (64%) Avoidant: distrust others and avoid intimate attachments (25%) & If always mom is Ignoring you on her phone or Anxious: agitated in relationships, clingy, fear partners will & leave them (11%) If mom is very hot and cold  Ingredients of Love Love argued to involve three key ingredients: – Passion: based on emotion – Intimacy: based on deep knowledge – Commitment: based on loyalty In most relationships, romantic passion subsides and intimacy increases  Gender, Culture, & Love Men and women respond similarly to: – Love at first sight, passionate love, companionate love, unrequited love, being securely or insecurely attached, or suffering when a relationship ends Men and women do differ in how they express love – Males more likely to express love in actions – Women more likely to express love in words Copyright © 2019 by Nelson Education Ltd. 44  The Sexual Response Cycle Beginning in the late 1950s, William Masters and Virginia Johnson observed sexual arousal and orgasm to learn about the typical pattern of human response to sexual stimulation. Their findings: Phase Physiological Response Genitals fill with blood and lubricate, ready for Excitement intercourse; breathing and pulse become rapid Plateau The changes related to excitement reach a peak Orgasm Contractions all over the body; sexual release Enlarged genitals release blood; male goes through Resolution refractory phase, women resolve slower  Motives for Sex Why do we have sex? – Pleasure – Reproduction – Foster intimacy – Express love – Fulfill duty – Conform to peer pressure – To earn money, personal gain etc – Addiction and disguise to emotional issues – Assert/gain power/control – Boredom – Exercise – Stress relief – Scientific experimentation – Revenge? – Spiritual development – Therapy  Motives for Sex Human sexuality influenced by biological, psychological, and cultural factors – Canadian culture relatively sexually active – Canadians have sex at earlier ages than teens in other countries – Average Canadian adult has sex around 150 times a year  Biology of Desire Testosterone promotes sexual desire in both sexes, but relationship unclear Studies of orgasm have indicated: – Men and women are sexually similar but women have lesser sexual capacity (Kinsey) (watch the movie!) – Physiological changes during sexual arousal and orgasm similar in both sexes, but female sexual capacity greater due to ability to have multiple orgasms (Masters & Johnson) Much more individual variation than previously thought  The Sex Drive Men display higher rates of almost every kind of sexual behaviour Hormones & brain circuits involved in sexual behaviour differ between sexes – Males: wiring for sex overlaps with dominance & aggression – Females: wiring for sex overlaps with nurturance Other researchers argue that differences in sexuality stem from roles and expectations  The Psychology of Desire Six primary psychological motives for sex: – Enhancement, intimacy, coping, self-affirmation, partner approval, peer approval Men endorse these motives more than women, except for intimacy (both sexes the same) Extrinsic motives associated with risky sexual behaviour, and consenting to unwanted sex  The Psychology of Desire Factors in arousal – Sexual fantasy (half of men and 1/5 of women) – Expectations – Stress – Fatigue – Anger – Performance anxiety – Cultural norms (Polynesia vs Inis Beag) – Arousing stimuli  The Psychology of Sex Like hunger, sexual desire is a function of biological factors, internal drives, external and imagined stimuli, and cultural expectations. Sexual Response Disorders Some people have a variation or impairment in some phase of the sexual response cycle. These variations are sometimes distressful or problematic enough to be seen as disorders: These can Y premature ejaculation improve with erectile dysfunction behavioral low sexual desire therapy, other lack of orgasm response psychotherapy, and/or medication.  Pornography Effects of Exposure to Pornography – Social learning theory: people learn about sex and · sexual myths through observation – Catharsis principle: viewing porn should provide people with a safe outlet for releasing aggressive/sexual tensions – It appears that violent pornography increases men’s aggressive behavior towards women http://www.cultsock.ndirect.co.uk/MUHome/cshtml/index.html  Sexual Coercion & Rape Rape Only 6% of sexual assaults in Canada are reported to police, yet rates of victimization among undergraduates may be around 29% – Most victims know their attackers, definitions of sexual coercion differ between men and women What causes some men to rape? – Peer approval – Anger, revenge, or desire to dominate/humiliate the victim – Narcissism and hostility toward women – Contempt for the victim & a sadistic pleasure in inflicting pain Not consent understanding - - social media/violence/fantasy ? - Mentally ill/Psychosis  The Culture of Desire Cultures transmit rules & regulations about sex to members by: – Gender roles Collections of rules that determine the proper attitudes and behaviour for men and women – Sexual scripts Set of implicit rules that specify proper sexual behaviour for a person in a given situation, varying with the person’s gender, age, religion, social status, and peer group Sexually Transmitted Infections Unlike the risk of pregnancy, the risk of STIs multiplies and spreads, and condoms do not offer sufficient protection for STIs like herpes. Sex and bad math: Herb has sex with 9 people, each of whom has 9 other partners who each have sex with 9 people. To how many people could his STI spread? 511 (Laura Brannon and Timothy Brock study estimate) Factors Correlating with Sexual Restrain Participation in High intelligence abstinence test scores, Strong religious education thinking of beliefs and programs, even consequences, and involvement when randomly focusing on future assigned to achievement participate Participation in activity helping Presence of father others, even when in the home randomly assigned to participate  Sexual Orientation Sexual orientation: one’s emotional and erotic preference for partners of a particular sex Can be defined on three dimensions including – self-identity – sexual attraction – actual sexual behavior  Sexual Orientation Approximately 2.8% of males and 1.4% of females have a homosexual orientation Psychological explanations for homosexuality unsupported Homosexual behaviour documented in over 450 species and may be somewhat heritable in men Among animals, homosexual activity fairly common – among pygmy chimpanzees, about 50% of sexual interaction, male giraffes Among some birds (greylag geese) homosexual unions have lasted up to 15 years Sexual Orientation and Mental Health Forty years ago, homosexuality was considered a psychological disorder. Having a homosexual orientation in today’s society still puts one at risk for anxiety and mood disorders because of the stress of discrimination and isolation, and the difficulty in finding satisfying and loving relationships. Origins of Sexual Orientation Theories suggesting that Cause or Effect? sexual preference is related to The brain and other parenting behaviors or differences in sexual childhood abuse are not orientation supported by evidence. Heterosexual men have a Differences appear to begin at certain cell cluster in the birth. This could be genetic, or hypothalamus that, on it could be caused by exposure average, is larger than in to hormones or antigens in the gay men and in women. womb. Gay men are more likely The fraternal birth order than straight men to be effect: being born after a poets, fiction writers, brother increases the artists, and musicians. likelihood of being gay.  Biological Differences Associated with Sexual Preference  Another Motivation: “To Belong” What do people need besides food and sex? Aristotle: friends Alfred Adler: community In Middle English, to be wretched [wrecche] means to “be without kin nearby” Roy Baumeister, Mark Leary, and Abraham Maslow: Belonging refers to being connected to others; part of a “To Belong.” group or family or community.  Why do we have a need to belong? Balancing Bonding with Other Needs The need to bond with others is so strong that we can feel lost without close relationships. However, we also seem to need autonomy and a sense of personal competence/efficacy. There a tension between “me” and “us,” but these goals can work together. Belonging builds self-esteem, and prepares us for confident autonomy. The Need to Belong Leads to: loyalty to friends, teams, groups, and families. However, the need to belong also leads to: changing our appearance to win acceptance. staying in abusive relationships. joining gangs, nationalist groups, and violent organizations.  Social Networking = Social Connection? Connecting online can be seen as taking turns reading brief words about each other, or as an experience of connection and/or belonging. Portrayal of one’s self online is often close to one’s actual sense of self. Use of social networking can become a compulsion, sacrificing face-to-face interaction and in-depth conversation. Another Area of Motivation: Work Why do we work…only for money and other incentives? The income from work can indirectly satisfy the drive for food and shelter. Some are driven by achievement motivation. In rare cases, the goals and activities of work can feel like a calling, a fulfilling and socially useful activity. Some people may seek the optimal work experience called “flow.” “The best moments in our lives are not the passive, receptive, relaxing times … the best moments usually occur when a feeling purposefully person’s body or mind is stretched to its engaged, deeply limits in a voluntary effort to accomplish immersed, and something difficult and worthwhile.” challenged From Flow, by Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi  Effects of Work on Motivation How does the work that we do & the conditions that we do it in nurture or crush our motivation to succeed? – Environmental factors are key – Working conditions may increase work motivation and satisfaction, and reduce the chances of emotional burnout  Good Working Conditions 1. I. The work feels meaningful & important to employees 2. 2. Employees have control over many aspects of their work 3.. 3 Tasks are varied rather than repetitive 4. 4 4. The company maintains clear & consistent rules 5.. 5 Employees have supportive relationships with their superiors and co-workers 6.. 6 Employees receive useful feedback about their work so they know accomplishments and areas of improvement 7. 7. The company offers opportunities for employees to learn & advance  Working Conditions Companies that foster these conditions tend to have more productive & satisfied employees Surprisingly, work motivation is not related to the amount of money you get, but how & when you get paid – Incentive pay: bonuses that are given upon completion of a goal rather than as an automatic raise  Motives, Values, & Well-Being People motivated by intrinsic satisfaction of activities are happier than those motivated by extrinsic rewards only Intrinsic motivation can be influenced by the goals we set for ourselves Goals are determined by our values about what is important in life Emotional stress may arise when the goals and values you choose are in conflict  know Need to Motivational Conflicts Approach-approach – Conflicts that occur when you are equally attracted to two or more possible goals – E.g.) strawberry vs. chocolate ice cream  I Motivational Conflicts Avoidance-avoidance – Conflicts that require you to choose the lesser of two evils because you dislike both alternatives – E.g.) unwanted homework or unwanted housework  ↓ Motivational Conflicts Approach-avoidance – Being attracted to and repelled by the same goal – Conflicts that occur when a single activity or goal has both a positive and a negative aspect – E.g.) asking for a date, you really want to date this person but are afraid of the rejection  Emotions "Understand Your Emotions" 1950 Coronet Instructional Films https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VAUjmlI97bs  What Is Emotion? Emotion - an intrapersonal state in response to an internal or external event Three components of emotion: Physiological - bodily arousal Heart rate, temperature, and breathing changes Cognitive - subjective appraisal and interpretation of one’s feelings and environment Behavioural - physical expression of the emotion Verbal or non-verbal emotional expressions Physiological Changes and Emotion  Ways to Measure Emotions – Lie Detection Behavioural displays of emotion Observe and rate facial expressions and verbal expressions of emotion Self-reports of emotion Widely used but has low validity. Why? Psychophysiological reactions (Lie Detectors) Face electromyography Heart rate Skin conductance Startle reflex I Didn't Know That - Beating a Lie Detector Test https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JcDr7O-Wmuk  Functions of Emotions Cognitive functions Emotions help organize and retrieve memories Guide judgments and help us make decisions Behavioural functions Emotions alter behaviours Action tendencies—emotions are associated with predictable patterns of behaviour Social functions Emotions both help and inhibit relationships  Memorize Theories of Emotion James-Lange Theory - the physiological response we experience to an event is interpreted by us as an emotion have I sentence for each Person Cannon-Bard Loading… Theory - the experience of emotion and bodily arousal occur simultaneously Schachter and Singer’s Two-Factor Theory - it is the way you interpret the physiological reaction that determines the emotion Theories of Emotion Testing the Two-Factor Theory  Pg. 392 on test ! Capilano Suspension Bridge, Arousal, and Physical Attraction  Other Theories of Emotion Cognitive-mediational theory - cognitive appraisal affects not only how we interpret physical arousal, but also the level of arousal Lazarus Cognitive appraisal is a cognitive mediator between environmental stimuli and our reaction to those stimuli Facial-feedback theory - facial expressions both express emotions and intensify physiological response to emotions Facial efference—sensory feedback from facial muscular activity Testing the Facial-Feedback Theory  Duchenne Smile Which is the Duchenne (real) smile?  Survival Function of Emotions Evolutionary theory—emotions are innate, passed through generations because they are necessary for survival TABLE Basic11-3emotions—innate and Evolutionary Links Between present Emotion regardless and Behaviour in Humans and Other Animals of culture Situation Emotion Survival Function Threat Fear, terror, anxiety Fight, flight Obstacle Anger, rage Biting, hitting Potential mate Joy, ecstasy, excitement Courtship, mating Loss of valued person Sadness, grief Crying for help Sudden novel object Surprise Stopping, attending  Development of Emotions Age Development of Development of Primary Emotions Secondary Emotions 0–8 months Anger, happiness, sadness, surprise, disgust, fear 18–24 months Envy, empathy, and embarrassment 24–36 months Pride, shame, and guilt Copyright © 2019 by Nelson Education Ltd. 92 Emotion: What Happens in the Brain? Notes on vid Amygdala how much graditude - you show Corelates how happy you are their people Calling - made them – Conditioning and recognizing fear happier by 19 % * - wellness day March 13th - A ↳ Think of someone in life that has done something so nice ↳ Thank them Cerebral cortex – Both positive and negative emotions Prefrontal cortex – Involved in coordinating emotional responses, an emotional guide  What About Positive Emotions? Positive psychology - study and enrichment of: Positive feelings - happiness, optimism Positive traits - wisdom, motivation Positive abilities - social skills Virtues - altruism, tolerance Interesting findings: Happy people tend to stay happy, even with life’s ups and downs Unhappy people tend to find little long-term happiness in positive events Happiness Levels Around the World How Much People Enjoy Their Lives as a Whole, on a Scale of 0 to 10 Denmark 7.7 Belgium 7.0 South Korea 6.3 Norway 7.7 United Kingdom 6.9 Taiwan 6.2 Switzerland 7.7 Oman 6.9 Japan 6.1 Netherlands 7.5 Brazil 6.8 Slovenia 6.1 Sweden 7.5 France 6.8 Italy 6.0 Canada 7.5 Germany 6.8 Slovakia 6.0 Finland 7.4 Qatar 6.7 Guatemala 6.0 Austria 7.4 Chile 6.6 Vietnam 5.5 Iceland 7.4 Argentina 6.6 Angola 5.6 Australia 7.4 Singapore 6.5 Russia 5.5 Israel 7.3 Trinidad and Tobago 6.5 Indonesia 5.3 Costa Rica 7.3 Kuwait 6.5 China 5.0 New Zealand 7.2 Saudi Arabia 6.5 Moldova 4.7 United Arab Emirates 7.1 Cyprus 6.5 Lebanon 4.9 Panama 7.1 Colombia 6.4 India 4.3 Mexico 7.1 Thailand 6.4 Malaysia 4.8 United States 7.1 Uruguay 6.4 Armenia 4.3 Ireland 7.1 Spain 6.3 Niger 4.2 Luxembourg 7.1 Czech Republic 6.3 Bulgaria 4.0 Venezuela 7.0 Suriname 6.3 Togo 2.9  Happiness – ‘Is there a set point?’ Happy people tend to be: Optimistic, outgoing, curious, and tender-minded Individuals with high self- esteem, spiritual, goal directed, have a sense of control over their lives Longitudinal study