Chapter 1: Preliminary Concepts and Recent Trends PDF

Module 1 Preliminary Concepts and Recent Trends At the end of this module, you are expected to: 1. explain the basic concepts and principles in educational assessment; 2. discuss on the role of assessment in making instructional decisions to improve teaching and...

Module 1 Preliminary Concepts and Recent Trends At the end of this module, you are expected to: 1. explain the basic concepts and principles in educational assessment; 2. discuss on the role of assessment in making instructional decisions to improve teaching and learning; and 3. reflect on and discuss the applications and implications of assessment to teaching and learning. Lesson 1. What is Educational Assessment? Assessment is the process of gathering evidences of students’ performance over a period of time to determine learning and mastery of skills. It is a fact finding activity that describes conditions that exists at a particular time. Assessment often involves measurement to gather data. However, it is the domain of assessment to organise the measurement data into interpretable forms on a number of variables. Assessment in educational setting may describe the progress students have made towards a given educational goal at a point in time. However, it is not concerned with the explanation of the underlying reasons and does not proffer recommendations for action. Although, there may be some implied judgement as to the satisfactoriness or otherwise of the situation. In the classroom, assessment refers to all the processes and products which are used to describe the nature and the extent of pupils’ learning. This also takes cognisance of the degree of correspondence of such learning with the objectives of instruction. Some educationists in contrasting assessment with evaluation opined that while evaluation is generally used when the subject is not persons or group of persons but the effectiveness or otherwise of a course or programme of teaching or method of teaching, assessment is used generally for measuring or determining personal attributes (totality of the student, the environment of learning and the student’s accomplishments). A number of instrument are often used to get measurement data from various sources. These include Tests, aptitude tests, inventories, questionnaires, observation schedules etc. All these sources give data which are organised to show evidence of change and the direction of that change. A test is thus one of the assessment instruments. It is used in getting quantitative data. Basic Principles 1. Assessment should be valid Validity ensures that assessment tasks and associated criteria effectively measure student attainment of the intended learning outcomes at the appropriate level. 1 2. Assessment should be reliable and consistent There is a need for assessment to be reliable and this requires clear and consistent processes for the setting, marking, grading and moderation of assignments. 3. Information about assessment should be explicit, accessible and transparent Clear, accurate, consistent and timely information on assessment tasks and procedures should be made available to students, staff and other external assessors or examiners. 4. Assessment should be inclusive and equitable As far as is possible without compromising academic standards, inclusive and equitable assessment should ensure that tasks and procedures do not disadvantage any group or individual. 5. Assessment should be an integral part of programme design and should relate directly to the programme aims and learning outcomes Assessment tasks should primarily reflect the nature of the discipline or subject but should also ensure that students have the opportunity to develop a range of generic skills and capabilities. 6. The amount of assessed work should be manageable The scheduling of assignments and the amount of assessed work required should provide a reliable and valid profile of achievement without overloading staff or students. 7. Formative and summative assessment should be included in each programme Formative and summative assessment should be incorporated into programmes to ensure that the purposes of assessment are adequately addressed. Many programmes may also wish to include diagnostic assessment. 8. Timely feedback that promotes learning and facilitates improvement should be an integral part of the assessment process Students are entitled to feedback on submitted formative assessment tasks, and on summative tasks, where appropriate. The nature, extent and timing of feedback for each assessment task should be made clear to students in advance. 9. Staff development policy and strategy should include assessment All those involved in the assessment of students must be competent to undertake their roles and responsibilities. 2 Types of Assessment Assessment is integral to the teaching–learning process, facilitating student learning and improving instruction, and can take a variety of forms. Classroom assessment is generally divided into three types: assessment for learning, assessment of learning and assessment as learning. Assessment for Learning (Formative Assessment) The philosophy behind assessment for learning is that assessment and teaching should be integrated into a whole. The power of such an assessment doesn't come from intricate technology or from using a specific assessment instrument. It comes from recognizing how much learning is taking place in the common tasks of the school day – and how much insight into student learning teachers can mine from this material. (McNamee and Chen 2005, p. 76) Assessment for learning is on-going assessment that allows teachers to monitor students on a day-to-day basis and modify their teaching based on what the students need to be successful. This assessment provides students with the timely, specific feedback that they need to make adjustments to their learning. After teaching a lesson, we need to determine whether the lesson was accessible to all students while still challenging to the more capable; what the students learned and still need to know; how we can improve the lesson to make it more effective; and, if necessary, what other lesson we might offer as a better alternative. This continual evaluation of instructional choices is at the heart of improving our teaching practice.(Burns 2005, p. 26) Teachers also use assessment for learning to enhance students’ motivation and commitment to learning. When teachers commit to learning as the focus of assessment, they change the classroom culture to one of student success. Teachers’ Roles in Assessment for Learning: Assessment for learning occurs throughout the learning process. It is interactive, with teachers: aligning instruction identifying particular learning needs of students or groups selecting and adapting materials and resources creating differentiated teaching strategies and learning opportunities for helping individual students move forward in their learning providing immediate feedback and direction to students Assessment of Learning (Summative Assessment) Assessment of learning refers to strategies designed to confirm what students know, demonstrate whether or not they have met curriculum outcomes or the goals of their 3 individualized programs, or to certify proficiency and make decisions about students’ future programs or placements. It is designed to provide evidence of achievement to parents, other educators, the students themselves, and sometimes to outside groups (e.g., employers, other educational institutions) Effective assessment of learning requires that teachers provide a rationale for undertaking a particular assessment of learning at a particular point in time clear descriptions of the intended learning processes that make it possible for students to demonstrate their competence and skill a range of alternative mechanisms for assessing the same outcomes public and defensible reference points for making judgements transparent approaches to interpretation descriptions of the assessment process strategies for recourse in the event of disagreement about the decisions. With the help of their teachers, students can look forward to assessment of learning tasks as occasions to show their competence, as well as the depth and breadth of their learning. Table 1. Comparison between Assessment for Learning and Assessment of Learning Assessment for Learning Assessment of Learning (Formative Assessment) (Summative Assessment) Checks learning to determine what to do Checks what has been learned to date. next and then provides suggestions of what to do—teaching and learning are indistinguishable from assessment. Is designed to assist educators and Is designed for the information of those not students in improving learning. directly involved in daily learning and teaching (school administration, parents, school board, Alberta Education, post- secondary institutions) in addition to educators and students. Is used continually by providing Is presented in a periodic report. descriptive feedback. Usually uses detailed, specific and Usually compiles data into a single descriptive feedback—in a formal or number, score or mark as part of a formal informal report. report. Is not reported as part of an achievement Is reported as part of an achievement grade. grade. Usually focuses on improvement, Usually compares the student's learning compared with the student's ―previous either with other students' learning (norm- 4 best‖ (self-referenced, making learning referenced, making learning highly more personal). competitive) or the standard for a grade level (criterion-referenced, making learning more collaborative and individually focused). Involves the student. Does not always involve the student. Adapted from Ruth Sutton, unpublished document, 2001, in Alberta Assessment Consortium, Refocus: Looking at Assessment for Learning (Edmonton, AB: Alberta Assessment Consortium, 2003), p. 4. Used with permission from Ruth Sutton Ltd. Assessment as Learning Assessment as learning develops and supports students' metacognitive skills. This form of assessment is crucial in helping students become lifelong learners. As students engage in peer and self-assessment, they learn to make sense of information, relate it to prior knowledge and use it for new learning. Students develop a sense of ownership and efficacy when they use teacher, peer and self-assessment feedback to make adjustments, improvements and changes to what they understand. Through this process students are able to learn about themselves as learners and become aware of how they learn – become megacognitive (knowledge of one’s own thought processes). Students reflect on their work on a regular basis, usually through self and peer assessment and decide (often with the help of the teacher, particularly in the early stages) what their next learning will be. Assessment as learning helps students to take more responsibility for their own learning and monitoring future directions. The teachers’ role in promoting the development of independent learners through assessment as learning is to: model and teach the skills of self-assessment guide students in setting their own goals, and monitoring their progress toward them provide exemplars and models of good practice and quality work that reflect curriculum outcomes work with students to develop clear criteria of good practice guide students in developing internal feedback or self-monitoring mechanisms to validate and question their own thinking, and to become comfortable with ambiguity and uncertainty that is inevitable in learning anything new provide regular and challenging opportunities to practise, so that students can become confident, competent self-assessors monitor students’ megacognitive processes as well as their learning, and provide descriptive feedback create an environment where it is safe for students to take chances and where support is readily available.‖ Four General Purposes of Assessment 5 1. Instructional assessments: Assessment used to modify and adapt instruction to meet students' needs. It can be an informal or formal assessment and usually takes place within the context of a classroom. Informal instructional assessments can include teacher questioning strategies or reviewing classroom work. A more formal instructional assessment could be a written pre-test in which a teacher uses the results to analyze what the students already know before determining what to teach. Example: Quiz on reading assignment 2. Diagnostic assessments: Assessment used to determine a student's academic, cognitive, or behavioral strengths and weaknesses. These assessments provide a comprehensive picture of a student's overall functioning and go beyond exclusively focusing on academic achievement. Example: Assessment to identify a student for special education or English language Services 3. Predictive assessments: Assessment used to determine the likelihood that a student or school will meet a particular predetermined goal. One common type of predictive assessment used by schools and districts is a benchmark (or interim) assessment, which is designed primarily to determine which students are on-track for meeting end-of-year achievement goals. Example: Interim reading assessment to determine whether a student is on-track to pass the state reading assessment required under Title I-A 4. Evaluative assessments: Assessment used to determine the outcome of a particular curriculum, program, or policy. The results are often compared to a predetermined goal or objective. These assessments, unlike instructional, diagnostic, or predictive assessments, are not necessarily designed to provide actionable information on students or schools. Example: State reading, mathematics, and science assessments Lesson 2. Common Terminologies Measurement Measurement is the process of determining or describing the attributes or characteristics of physical objects generally in terms of quantity. When we measure, we use some standard instrument to find out how long, heavy, hot, voluminous, cold, fast or straight some things are. In measuring, we are actually collecting quantitative information relative to some established standards. For example, to find the area of a rectangular piece of paper, we simply multiply the lengths of the sides of the paper. In the field of education, however, the quantities and qualities of interest are abstract, unseen and cannot be touched and so the measurement process becomes difficult; hence, the need to specify the learning outcomes to be measured. For example, knowledge of the subject matter is often measured through standardized test results. In this case, the measuring procedure is testing. Knowledge of the subject 6 matter may as well be measured through perceptions (using scale of 1 to 5 with 1 being the lowest and 5 the highest). Measurement can therefore be objective (as in testing) or subjective (as in perceptions). In the example cited, testing produces objective measurements while expert ratings provide subjective measurements. Objective measurements are measurements that do not depend on the person or individual taking the measurement. Regardless of who is taking the measurement, the same measurement values should be obtained when using an objective assessment procedure. In contrast, subjective measurements often differ from the assessor to the next even if the same quantity or quality is being measured. Objective measurements are more stable than subjective measurements in the sense that repeated measurements of the same quantity or quality of interest will produce more or less the same outcome. However, there are certain facts of quantity or quality of interest that cannot be successfully captured by objective procedures but which can be done by subjective methods (e.g. aesthetic appeal of a product, student’s performance in a drama, etc.). It implies that it may be best to use both methods whenever the constraints of time and resources permit. Testing Testing is an instrument of assessment A test or quiz is used to examine someone's knowledge of something to determine what he or she knows or has learned. It is an assessment tool that reflects the records of the students’ learning outcomes. Testing measures the level of skill or knowledge that has been reached. A standardized test is any form of test that (1) requires all test takers to answer the same questions, or a selection of questions from common bank of questions, in the same way, and that (2) is scored in a ―standard‖ or consistent manner, which makes it possible to compare the relative performance of individual students or groups of students. In addition to the familiar multiple-choice format, standardized tests can include true-false questions, short-answer questions, essay questions, or a mix of question types. While standardized tests were traditionally presented on paper and completed using pencils, and many still are, they are increasingly being administered on computers connected to online programs. Many test experts and educators consider them to be a fair and objective method of assessing the academic achievement of students, mainly because the standardized format, coupled with computerized scoring, reduces the potential for favoritism, bias, or subjective evaluations. A high-stakes test is any test used to make important decisions about students, educators, schools, or districts, most commonly for the purpose of accountability—i.e., the attempt by federal, state, or local government agencies and school administrators to ensure that students are enrolled in effective schools and being taught by effective teachers. In general, ―high stakes‖ means that test scores are used to determine punishments (such as sanctions, penalties, funding reductions, negative publicity), accolades (awards, public celebration, positive publicity), advancement (grade 7 promotion or graduation for students), or compensation (salary increases or bonuses for administrators and teachers). A low-stakes test would be used to measure academic achievement, identify learning problems, or inform instructional adjustments, among other purposes. What distinguishes a high-stakes test from a low-stakes test is not its form (how the test is designed) but its function (how the results are used). For example, if test results are used to determine an important outcome, such as whether a student receives a high school diploma, the test would be considered a high-stakes test regardless of whether it’s a multiple-choice exam, an oral exam, or an essay exam. Low-stakes tests generally carry no significant or public consequences—the results typically matter far more to an individual teacher or student than to anyone else—and scores are not used to burnish or tarnish the reputation of teachers or schools. Evaluation Evaluation originates from the root word ―value‖ and so when we evaluate, we expect our process to give information regarding the worth, appropriateness, goodness, validity or legality of something for which a reliable measurement has been made. It is a process designed to provide information that will help us to make a judgment about a particular situation. The end result of evaluation is to adopt, reject or revise what has been evaluated. Objects of evaluation include instructional programs, school projects, teachers, students and educational goals. Examples are correlation between achievement test results and diagnostics test results, attributes of an effective teacher, ―education for all‖ project of a district and the comparative effectiveness of two remedial reading programs. Evaluation involves data collection and analysis and quantitative and qualitive methods. Evaluation helps educators determine the success of their academic programs and signal efforts to improve student achievement. It can also help identify the success factors of programs and projects. Evaluations are often divided into two broad categories: formative and summative. Formative evaluation is a method of judging the worth of a program while the program activities are in progress. This type focuses on the process. Its main objective is to determine deficiencies so that the appropriate interventions can be done. Formative evaluation may also be used in analysing learning materials, student learning and achievements and teacher effectiveness. Summative evaluation is a method of judging the worth of a program at the end of the program activities. The focus is on the result. The instruments used to collect data for summative evaluation are questionnaires, survey forms, interview/observation guide 8 and tests. This category is designed to determine the effectiveness of a program or activity based on its avowed purposes. The subject of evaluation is wider than assessment which focuses specifically on student learning outcomes. Types of Tests 1. Achievement tests are designed to measure the knowledge and skills students learned in school or to determine the academic progress they have made over a period of time. The tests may also be used to evaluate the effectiveness of a schools and teachers, or identify the appropriate academic placement for a student—i.e., what courses or programs may be deemed most suitable, or what forms of academic support they may need. Achievement tests are ―backward-looking‖ in that they measure how well students have learned what they were expected to learn. 2. Aptitude tests attempt to predict a student’s ability to succeed in an intellectual or physical endeavor by, for example, evaluating mathematical ability, language proficiency, abstract reasoning, motor coordination, or musical talent. Aptitude tests are ―forward-looking‖ in that they typically attempt to forecast or predict how well students will do in a future educational or career setting. Aptitude tests are often a source of debate, since many question their predictive accuracy and value. 3. Psychological tests, including IQ tests, are used to measure a person’s cognitive abilities and mental, emotional, developmental, and social characteristics. Trained professionals, such as school psychologists, typically administer the tests, which may require students to perform a series of tasks or solve a set of problems. Psychological tests are often used to identify students with learning disabilities or other special needs that would qualify them for specialized services. 4. Placement tests are used to place new students in the right class in a school. It assesses students’ productive and receptive skills and designed to show how good a student is in English in relation to a previously agreed system of levels. 5. Diagnostic Tests are used to discover student problems, difficulties or deficiencies in a course. We use this type of tests to know students’ strengths and weaknesses so as to be able to do something about them. 6. Proficiency Tests are not necessarily based on certain courses that students may have previously taken. Most students take this type of test to admit to a foreign university, get a job, or obtain some kind of certificate. Teachers design this test to measure students’ knowledge and ability in a language. 7. Personality test is a method of assessing human personality constructs. Most personality assessment instruments are in fact introspective (i.e., subjective) self- report questionnaire and rating scales. 9 Lesson 3. High Quality Assessment Components Clear and Appropriate Targets Assessment can be made precise, accurate and dependable only if what are to be achieved are clearly stated and feasible. It starts with clear and appropriate learning targets which include both what the students know and can do and the criteria for judging student performance. The learning targets, involving knowledge, reasoning, skills/performance, products and affects, need to be stated in behavioral terms which denote something which can be observed through the behavior of the students. Using learning targets, teachers assess student performance throughout the year. These are frequent checks provide the teachers with information on skills and concepts that may have to be covered again as children mature. There are many benefits based on the existence of learning’s that are CLEAR and USABLE in order to build clear learning targets: 1. Knowledge targets begin with words like: know, list, name, identify, recall. Procedural knowledge targets call for knowing how to do something. 2. Reasoning targets deal with the skilful use or application of knowledge. These targets start out with mental processes like: predict, infer, classify, hypothesize, compare, conclude, summarize, etc. 3. Performance skills targets require the student to demonstrate their mastery of a learning target and to be observed. 4. Product targets are tangible and concrete evidence of student’s ability. These are not used as frequently as other types but are highly valued, calling for creation of a product. There is a need to specify the level of workmanship as expert, skilled, or novice. 5. Dispositional targets rarely show up on state standards but are important because they reflect students’ attitudes about school and learning. Sources of Learning Targets: 1. Bloom’s Taxonomy a. Cognitive – mental skills (Knowledge) b. Psychomotor – manual or physical skills (Skills) c. Affective – growth in feelings (Attitude) 2. National, regional, and district standards 3. Textbooks Appropriate Methods a. Written-Response Instrument 10   Objective tests – appropriate for assessing the various levels of hierarchy of educational objectives  Essays – can test the students’ grasp of the higher level cognitive skills  Checklists – list of several characteristics or activities presented to the subjects of a study, where they will analyze and place a mark opposite to the characteristics. b. Product Rating Scales - used to rate products like book reports, maps, charts, diagrams, notebooks, creative endeavors - need to be developed to assess various products over the years c. Performance Tests - Performance checklist consists of a list of behaviors that make up a certain type of performance. It is used to determine whether or not an individual behaves in a certain way when asked to complete a particular task d. Oral Questioning – appropriate assessment method when the objectives are to: i) Assess the students’ stock knowledge and/or determine the students’ ability to communicate ideas in coherent verbal sentences. e. Observation and Self Reports - useful supplementary methods when used in conjunction with oral questioning and performance tests Adequate Sampling Sampling facilitates the assessment process when it is not feasible to assess all students—for example when programs/courses have large numbers of students or when artifacts take a long time to review. The portion evaluated is the sample of the entire population. Best practices in sampling:  A subjective artifact using a rubric (e.g. a research project in a capstone course or a paper) may be used only if it is scored by an evaluation group, not the individual instructor.  When scoring subjective artifacts with a rubric, the evaluation group must norm before scoring. This is especially important for rubrics assessing complicated critical‐thinking outcomes.  Each artifact can be scored independently by two different evaluators—that is, scored twice by two scorers who don’t know that the other gave it. Example of Using a Sample:  The English Department runs five sections of Critical Thinking Through Argument involving 98 students. Two of the course’s four outcomes are to be assessed by a 8‐10 page paper scored by a rubric. The English department selects 20 papers randomly from the five sections. Sampling procedures before evaluating artifacts or data. 1. Decide whether you will use a sample or the whole population. 11  2. Choose an appropriate sample size based on percentage, artifact size and complexity. 3. Choose an appropriate sampling method. Common Types of Sampling  Simple Random Sampling - You randomly select a certain number of students or artifacts.  Stratified Sampling. Students are sorted into homogenous groups and then a random sample is selected from each group. This is useful when there are groups that may be underrepresented.  Systematic Sampling. You select the nth (e.g. 7th, 9th, 20th) student or artifact from a list.  Cluster Sampling. You randomly select clusters or groups (e.g. classes or sections), and you evaluate the assignments of all the students in those randomly selected clusters or groups Objectivity Objectivity refers to the removal of personal opinion, judgement or bias in order to arrive at more precision. It is disputed how much this can be achieved in reality as even the framing of the situation in which objectivity is desired ( such as research project or an assessment) is subject to subjective influence. Purposes 1. To avoid bias 2. To ensure accurate conclusion or results 3. To ensure out comes purely based on facts Characteristics of Objectivity 1. Based on scientific facts rather than on one’s opinion. 2. Factual, free from personal biases. 3. Judgment based from observable phenomena uninfluenced by emotions or personal prejudices 4. Being objective is to be or to do something that is not primary about one self 5. Has multi-dimensional viewing 6. Its results and data is based on continuous testing, then demonstrated or confirmed by a third party. In educational assessment, objectivity in scoring and interpretation of test items is a very crucial element to be considered. Objectivity of scoring means same person or different persons scoring the test at any time arrives at the same result without any chance error. In other words, the personal judgement of an individual who score the answer script should not be a factor affecting the test scores. Objectivity of test item means that the item must call for a definite single answer. Well-constructed test item 12 should lead itself to one and only one interpretation by students who know the material involved. Lesson 4. Recent Trends and Focus Accountability Assessments generate information and, depending on the nature and use of the information obtained, can play multiple roles in education. Accountability involves using some of this information to generate incentives to validate or change the behaviors of students and educators. Taken together, assessments and accountability policy constitute a third channel through which education reform ideas may flow. Various types of assessments— formative classroom assessment, classroom tests, state and local tests, college entrance and placement practices, tests for teacher certification—all interact with other elements in the education system, sometimes in unanticipated ways. When assessments are aligned with learning goals, accountability systems can motivate classroom instruction to focus on those outcomes (Stecher, Barron, Kaganoff, and Goodwin, 1998). Thus, policy makers and educators in many states view assessment linked with accountability as a powerful strategy for ensuring that all students are held to the same set of high standards (Grissmer and Flanagan, 1998; Massell et al., 1997; Olson, 2001). In the field of education there are three main types of accountability system: (a) Compliance with regulations - compliance systems view the school as the embodiment of constant processes and allow for variation in results, generally attributed to the varying characteristics of students. Simply stated, educators were accountable for adherence to rules and accountable to the bureaucracy. (b) Adherence to professional norms - Within this system, educators are accountable for adherence to standards and accountable to their peers. (c) Results driven. The third accountability system is based upon results, with results defined in terms of student learning. In these systems educators are accountable for student learning and accountable to the general public. Educators often find themselves responding to all three systems, attempting to balance the requirements of each. Professional norms complement both compliance and results systems. On the other hand, compliance and results systems often conflict. Part of this conflict stems from the fact that the emergence of results systems has been fostered by dissatisfaction with historic results; that is, those achieved under compliance systems. At present, accountability systems focus less on compliance and more on results. Fairness 13  Fairness refers to the consideration of learner’s needs and characteristics, and any reasonable adjustments that need to be applied to take account of them. It is important to ensure that the learner is informed about, understands and is able to participate in the assessment process, and agrees that the process is appropriate. It also includes an opportunity for the person being assessed to challenge the result of the assessment and to be reassessed if necessary. Ideally an assessment should not discriminate between learners except on grounds of the ability being assessed. Three imperatives that support fairness in educational assessment 1. Democratic While examinations have not historically always been fair or democratic in intent or consequence, a democratic imperative for fairness in assessment has evolved from the tradition of selection by examination. 2. Measurement The quality of information that assessments provide is affected by stakeholders’ perceptions of fairness. Students’ perceptions influence their motivation in the assessment process, their degree of engagement, and thus the degree to which they demonstrate learning. Perceptions of fairness should be taken into account in the development and revision of an assessment tool for the same reason that face validity and credibility are considered. When stakeholders view an assessment as fair and meaningful, genuine participation is more 3. Pedagogical The beliefs and knowledge that teachers and students bring to teaching and learning interact with different elements of fairness. The fairness of classroom assessment, regardless of purpose, is affected by classroom relationships and interactions, which in turn influences the learning environment. When this circular process is scaled up from classrooms to systems, based on the assumption that all educational assessments should ultimately inform teaching and learning, the pedagogical imperative for fair assessment is at the heart of the enterprise. For an assessment to be fair, it must:  measure a student’s ability in the subject they have studied  effectively differentiate student performance  ensure no student is disadvantaged, including those who speak English as a second language  give all students the same opportunity to achieve the right grade, irrespective of which exam series they take or which examiner marks their paper. 14 Standards-Based Education Standards-based education refers to systems of instruction, assessment, grading, and academic reporting that are based on students demonstrating understanding or mastery of the knowledge and skills they are expected to learn as they progress through their education. In schools that use standards-based approaches to educating students, learning standards—i.e., concise, written descriptions of what students are expected to know and be able to do at a specific stage of their education— determine the goals of a lesson or course, and teachers then determine how and what to teach students so they achieve the learning expectations described in the standards. The general goal of standards-based learning is to ensure that students are acquiring the knowledge and skills that are deemed to be essential to success in school, higher education, careers, and adult life. If students fail to meet expected learning standards, they typically receive additional instruction, practice time, and academic support to help them achieve proficiency or meet the learning expectations described in the standards. In most cases, standards-based learning, standards-based instruction, or standards-based education, among other similar terms, are synonyms for proficiency- based learning or competency-based learning (two terms that are themselves synonymous). Defining standards-based learning is further complicated by the fact that educators not only use a wide variety of terms for the general approach, but the terms may or may not be used synonymously from place to place. Outcomes-Based Education The change in educational perspective is called Outcomes-Based Education(OBE). It focuses on classroom instruction on the skills and competencies that students must demonstrate when they exit. Characteristics of Outcomes-based Education 1. It is student centered. It places the students at the center of the process by focusing on Student Learning Outcomes (SLO) 2. It is faculty driven. It encourages faculty responsibility for teaching, assessing program outcomes and motivating participation from the students. 3. It is meaningful. It provides data to guide the teacher in making valid and continuing improvement in instruction and assessment activities. 15 Procedure in implementing outcomes-based education on the subject or course. 1. Identification of educational objectives of the subject/course. Educational objectives are the broad goals that the subject/course expects to achieve, and defining in general terms the knowledge, skills and attitude that the teacher will help the students to attain. The objectives are stated from the point of view of the teacher such as ―to develop, to provide, to enhance, etc‖. 2. Listing of learning outcomes specified for each subject/course objective. Learning outcomes are stated as concrete active detailed guide such as ―to demonstrate, to explain, to differentiate, to illustrate, etc,. A good source of learning outcomes statements is the taxonomy of educational objectives by Benjamin Bloom (Cognitive, Psychomotor and Affective) 3. Drafting outcomes assessment procedure. This procedure will enable the teacher to determine the degree to which the students are attaining the desired learning outcomes. It identifies for every outcome the data that will be gathered which will guide the selection of the assessment tools to be used and at what point assessment will be done. 16 Guide Questions 1. What is assessment? 2. What does assessment of learning mean? Assessment for learning? And assessment as learning? 3. Describe the significant role of fairness in assessment. Answers to Guide Questions 1. Assessment is the process of gathering evidences of students’ performance over a period of time to determine learning and mastery of skills. It is a fact finding activity that describes conditions that exists at a particular time. 2. Assessment of learning refers to strategies designed to confirm what students know, demonstrate whether or not they have met curriculum outcomes or the goals of their individualized programs, or to certify proficiency and make decisions about students’ future programs or placements. Assessment for learning is on-going assessment that allows teachers to monitor students on a day-to-day basis and modify their teaching based on what the students need to be successful. Assessment as learning develops and supports students' metacognitive skills. This form of assessment is crucial in helping students become lifelong learners. 3. It is important to ensure that the learner is informed about, understands and is able to participate in the assessment process, and agrees that the process is appropriate. It also includes an opportunity for the person being assessed to challenge the result of the assessment and to be reassessed if necessary. Key Points/Summary: 1. Assessment is the process of gathering evidences of students’ performance over a period of time to determine learning and mastery of skills. Assessment in educational setting may describe the progress students have made towards a given educational goal at a point in time. In the classroom, assessment refers to all the processes and products which are used to describe the nature and the extent of pupils’ learning. 2. Classroom assessment is generally divided into three types: assessment for learning, assessment of learning and assessment as learning. 3. Assessment can be used to evaluate instruction, diagnose student’s achievement, predict likelihood that the student meets the goal, and evaluate a curriculum, program, project or policy. 4. Measurement, testing and evaluation are equally important terminologies in educational assessment. Measurement is classified as objective or subjective, whereas testing can be standardized or high stakes, and evaluation is categorized into formative and summative 5. Variety of tests are very useful in assessment of learning such as achievement test, diagnostic test, personality test, placement test, proficiency test, aptitude test, and psychological test. 6. To ensure high quality assessment, there should be: (i) clear and appropriate 17  learning targets, (ii) appropriate methods, (iii) adequate sampling, and (iv) objectivity in evaluation. 7. The recent trends and focus of educational assessment are on accountability and fairness, high regards on standards-based education and shift in education system from traditional to outcomes-based education in the higher education. 18 REFERENCES Books Navarro, R.S. & Santos, R.G.(2012). Assessment of Learning Outcomes (Assessment 1), Lorimar Publishing, Inc. Quezon City. Anderson, J.A. 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