Human Anatomy and Physiology Eleventh Edition PDF

Human Anatomy and Physiology Eleventh Edition Chapter 01 The Human Body: An Orientation Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc....

Human Anatomy and Physiology Eleventh Edition Chapter 01 The Human Body: An Orientation Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Why This Matters Learning and understanding anatomical terminology allows you to communicate accurately with your colleagues in the health sciences. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.1 Form and Function of Anatomy & Physiology Anatomy – Study of the structure of body parts and their relationship to one another Physiology – Study of the function of body parts; how they work to carry out life-sustaining activities Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Topics of Anatomy (1 of 2) Subdivisions of anatomy: – Gross or macroscopic anatomy is the study of large, visible structures  Regional anatomy looks at all structures in a particular area of the body  System anatomy looks at just one system (cardiovascular, nervous, muscular, etc.)  Surface anatomy looks at internal structures as they relate to overlying skin (visible muscle masses or veins seen on surface) Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Topics of Anatomy (2 of 2) Subdivisions (cont.) – Microscopic anatomy deals with structures too small to be seen by naked eye  Cytology: microscopic study of cells  Histology: microscopic study of tissues – Developmental anatomy studies anatomical and physiological development throughout life  Embryology: study of developments before birth To study anatomy, one must know anatomical terminology and be able to observe, manipulate, palpate, and auscultate Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Topics of Physiology Subdivisions of physiology – Based on organ systems (e.g., renal or cardiovascular physiology) – Often focuses on cellular and molecular levels of the body  Looks at how the body’s abilities are dependent on chemical reactions in individual cells To study physiology, one must understand basic physical principles (e.g., electrical currents, pressure, and movement) as well as basic chemical principles Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Complementarity of Structure and Function (1 of 2) Anatomy and physiology are inseparable – Function always reflects structure – What a structure can do depends on its specific form – Known as the principle of complementarity of structure and function Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.2 Structural Organization Human body is very organized, from the smallest chemical level to whole organism level: – Chemical level: atoms, molecules, and organelles – Cellular level: single cell – Tissue level: groups of similar cells – Organ level: contains two or more types of tissues – Organ system level: organs that work closely together – Organismal level: all organ systems combined to make the whole organism Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Levels of Structural Organization Atoms Molecules Organelle Smooth muscle cell Chemical level Atoms combine to form molecules. Cellular level Cells are made up of molecules. Smooth muscle tissue Cardiovascular system Tissue level Tissues consist of similar types of cells. Heart Blood vessels Blood vessel (organ) Smooth muscle tissue Connective tissue Epithelial tissue Organ level Organs are made up of different types of tissues. Organismal level Organ system level The human organism is made up of many organ Organ systems consist of different systems. organs that work together closely. Figure 1.2 Levels of structural organization. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 Requirements for Life Necessary Life Functions Maintenance of life involves: – Maintaining boundaries – Movement – Responsiveness – Digestion – Metabolism – Excretion – Reproduction – Growth Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Necessary Life Functions (1 of 5) Maintaining boundaries – Separation between internal and external environments must exist  Plasma membranes separate cells  Skin separates organism from environment Movement – Muscular system allows movement  Of body parts via skeletal muscles  Of substances via cardiac muscle (blood) and smooth muscle (digestion, urination)  Contractility refers to movement at the cellular level Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Necessary Life Functions (2 of 5) Responsiveness – Ability to sense and respond to stimuli  Withdrawal reflex prevents injury  Control of breathing rate, which must change in response to different activities Digestion – Breakdown of ingested foodstuffs, followed by absorption of simple molecules into blood Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Necessary Life Functions (3 of 5) Metabolism – All chemical reactions that occur in body cells  Sum of all catabolism (breakdown of molecules) and anabolism (synthesis of molecules) Excretion – Removal of wastes from metabolism and digestion  Urea (from breakdown of proteins), carbon dioxide (from metabolism), feces (unabsorbed foods) Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Necessary Life Functions (4 of 5) Reproduction – At the cellular level, reproduction involves division of cells for growth or repair – At the organismal level, reproduction is the production of offspring Growth – Increase in size of a body part or of organism Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Necessary Life Functions (5 of 5) Humans are multicellular, so to function, individual cells must be kept alive – Organ systems are designed to service the cells – All cells depend on organ systems to meet their survival needs There are 11 organ systems that work together to maintain life Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Examples of Interrelationships Among Body Organ Systems Digestive system Takes in nutrients, breaks them Respiratory system down, and eliminates unabsorbed Takes in oxygen and matter (feces) eliminates carbon dioxide Food O2 CO2 Cardiovascular system Via the blood, distributes oxygen and nutrients to all body cells and delivers wastes and carbon dioxide to disposal organs Blood CO2 O2 Urinary system Heart Eliminates Nutrients nitrogenous wastes and Interstitial fluid excess ions Figure 1.3 Examples of interrelationships among body organ Nutrients and wastes pass between blood plasma and systems. cells via the interstitial fluid Integumentary system Feces Protects the body as a whole Urine from the external environment Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The Body’s Organ Systems and Their Major Functions (1 of 12) Hair Skin Nails (a) Integumentary System Forms the external body covering, and protects deeper tissues from injury. Synthesizes vitamin D, and houses cutaneous (pain, pressure, etc.) receptors, and sweat and oil glands. Figure 1.4a The body’s organ systems and their major functions. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The Body’s Organ Systems and Their Major Functions (2 of 12) Bones Joint (b) Skeletal System Protects and supports body organs, and provides a framework the muscles use to cause movement. Blood cells are formed within bones. Bones store minerals. Figure 1.4b The body’s organ systems and their major functions. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The Body’s Organ Systems and Their Major Functions (3 of 12) Skeletal muscles (c) Muscular System Allows manipulation of the environment, locomotion, and facial expression. Maintains posture, and produces heat. Figure 1.4c The body’s organ systems and their major functions. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The Body’s Organ Systems and Their Major Functions (4 of 12) Brain Nerves Spinal cord (d) Nervous System As the fast-acting control system of the body, it responds to internal and external changes by activating appropriate muscles and glands. Figure 1.4d The body’s organ systems and their major functions. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The Body’s Organ Systems and Their Major Functions (5 of 12) Pineal gland Thyroid Pituitary gland gland Thymus Adrenal gland Pancreas Testis Ovary (e) Endocrine System Glands secrete hormones that regulate processes such as growth, reproduction, and nutrient use (metabolism) by body cells. Figure 1.4e The body’s organ systems and their major functions. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The Body’s Organ Systems and Their Major Functions (6 of 12) Heart Blood vessels (f) Cardiovascular System Blood vessels transport blood, which carries oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, wastes, etc. The heart pumps blood. Figure 1.4f The body’s organ systems and their major functions. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The Body’s Organ Systems and Their Major Functions (7 of 12) Red bone marrow Thymus Lymphatic vessels Thoracic duct Spleen Lymph nodes (g) Lymphatic System/Immunity Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and returns it to blood. Disposes of debris in the lymphatic stream. Houses white blood cells (lymphocytes) involved in immunity. The immune response mounts the attack against foreign substances within the body. Figure 1.4g The body’s organ systems and their major functions. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The Body’s Organ Systems and Their Major Functions (8 of 12) Nasal cavity Pharynx Bronchus Larynx Trachea Lung (h) Respiratory System Keeps blood constantly supplied with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide. These exchanges occur through the walls of the air sacs of the lungs. Figure 1.4h The body’s organ systems and their major functions. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The Body’s Organ Systems and Their Major Functions (9 of 12) Oral cavity Esophagus Liver Stomach Small intestine Large intestine Rectum Anus (i) Digestive System Breaks down food into absorbable units that enter the blood for distribution to body cells. Indigestible foodstuffs are eliminated as feces. Figure 1.4i The body’s organ systems and their major functions. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The Body’s Organ Systems and Their Major Functions (10 of 12) Kidney Ureter Urinary bladder Urethra (j) Urinary System Eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the body. Regulates water, electrolyte, and acid-base balance of the blood. Figure 1.4j The body’s organ systems and their major functions. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The Body’s Organ Systems and Their Major Functions (11 of 12) Prostate Penis Ductus Testis deferens Scrotum (k) Male Reproductive System Overall function is production of offspring. Testes produce sperm and male sex hormone, and male ducts and glands aid in delivery of sperm to the female reproductive tract. Ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormones. The remaining female structures serve as sites for fertilization and development of the fetus. Mammary glands of female breasts produce milk to nourish the newborn. Figure 1.4k The body’s organ systems and their major functions. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The Body’s Organ Systems and Their Major Functions (12 of 12) Mammary glands (in breasts) Ovary Uterine Uterus tube Vagina (l) Female Reproductive System Overall function is production of offspring. Testes produce sperm and male sex hormone, and male ducts and glands aid in delivery of sperm to the female reproductive tract. Ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormones. The remaining female structures serve as sites for fertilization and development of the fetus. Mammary glands of female breasts produce milk to nourish the newborn. Figure 1.4l The body’s organ systems and their major functions. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Survival Needs (1 of 3) Humans need several factors for survival that must be in the appropriate amounts; too much or too little can be harmful: – Nutrients – Oxygen – Water – Normal body temperature – Appropriate atmospheric pressure Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Survival Needs (2 of 3) Nutrients – Chemicals for energy and cell building  Carbohydrates: major source of energy  Proteins: needed for cell building and cell chemistry  Fats: long-term energy storage  Minerals and vitamins: involved in chemical reactions as well as for structural purposes Oxygen – Essential for release of energy from foods  The body can survive only a few minutes without oxygen Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Survival Needs (3 of 3) Water – Most abundant chemical in body; provides the watery environment needed for chemical reactions  Also is fluid base for secretions and excretions Normal body temperature – If body temp falls below or goes above 37°C, rates of chemical reactions are affected Appropriate atmospheric pressure – Specific pressure of air is needed for adequate breathing and gas exchange in lungs Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.4 Homeostasis Homeostasis is the maintenance of relatively stable internal conditions despite continuous changes in environment – A dynamic state of equilibrium, always readjusting as needed – Maintained by contributions of all organ systems Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Homeostatic Controls (1 of 6) Body must constantly be monitored and regulated to maintain homeostasis – Nervous and endocrine systems, as well as other systems, play a major role in maintaining homeostasis – Variables are factors that can change (blood sugar, body temperature, blood volume, etc.) Homeostatic control of variables involves three components: receptor, control center, and effector Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Homeostatic Controls (2 of 6) Receptor (sensor) – Monitors environment – Responds to stimuli (things that cause changes in controlled variables) Control center – Determines set point at which variable is maintained – Receives input from receptor – Determines appropriate response Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Homeostatic Controls (3 of 6) Effector – Receives output from control center – Provides the means to respond – Response either reduces stimulus (negative feedback) or enhances stimulus (positive feedback) Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Homeostatic Controls (4 of 6) Negative feedback – Most-used feedback mechanism in body – Response reduces or shuts off original stimulus  Variable changes in opposite direction of initial change – Examples  Regulation of body temperature (a nervous system mechanism)  Regulation of blood glucose by insulin (an endocrine system mechanism) Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Homeostatic Controls (5 of 6) Example of negative feedback: – Receptors sense increased blood glucose (blood sugar) – Pancreas (control center) secretes insulin into the blood – Insulin causes body cells (effectors) to absorb more glucose, which decreases blood glucose levels Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Interactions Among the Elements of a Homeostatic Control System Maintain Stable Internal Conditions (1 of 6) 3 Input: Information 4 Output: Information sent along afferent Control sent along efferent pathway to control Center pathway to effector. center. Afferent Efferent pathway pathway Receptor Effector 2 Receptor detects change. 5 Response of effector feeds back to reduce IMB ALA the effect of 1 Stimulus N CE stimulus and produces returns variable change in BALANCE to homeostatic variable. level. IMB ALA N CE Figure 1.5 Interactions among the elements of a homeostatic control system maintain stable internal conditions. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Body Temperature is Regulated by a Negative Feedback Mechanism Control Center (thermoregulatory center in brain) Afferent Efferent pathway pathway Receptors Temperature-sensitive Effectors cells in skin and brain Sweat glands Sweat glands activated Body temperature IM B Response rises ALA N Evaporation of sweat CE Body temperature falls; Stimulus: Heat BALANCE stimulus ends Stimulus: Cold IM B Response ALA Body temperature rises; N CE Body temperature stimulus ends falls Effectors Receptors Skeletal muscles Temperature-sensitive cells in skin and brain Efferent Afferent pathway pathway Shivering begins Control Center (thermoregulatory center in brain) Figure 1.6 Body temperature is regulated by a negative feedback mechanism. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Homeostatic Controls (6 of 6) Positive feedback – Response enhances or exaggerates the original stimulus – May exhibit a cascade or amplifying effect as feedback causes variable to continue in same direction as initial change – Usually controls infrequent events that do not require continuous adjustment, for example:  Enhancement of labor contractions by oxytocin  Platelet plug formation and blood clotting Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved A Positive Feedback Mechanism Regulates Formation of a Platelet Plug (1 of 5) 1 Break or tear occurs in blood vessel wall. Positive feedback cycle is initiated. 3 Released 2 Platelets chemicals Positive adhere to site attract more feedback and release platelets. loop chemicals. Feedback cycle ends when plug is formed. 44 Platelet plug is fully formed. Figure 1.7 A positive feedback mechanism regulates formation of a platelet plug. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Homeostatic Imbalance Disturbance of homeostasis – Increases risk of disease – Contributes to changes associated with aging  Control systems become less efficient – If negative feedback mechanisms become overwhelmed, destructive positive feedback mechanisms may take over  Heart failure Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Anatomical Terms Anatomical Position and Directional Terms Standard anatomical position – Body erect, feet slightly apart, palms facing forward with thumbs pointing away from body Directional terms describe one body structure in relation to another body structure – Direction is always based on standard anatomical position – Right and left refer to the body being viewed, not right and left of observer Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Regional Terms Two major divisions of body – Axial  Head, neck, and trunk – Appendicular  Limbs (legs and arms) Regional terms designate specific areas within body divisions Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved  Cephalic Frontal Figure 1.8a Regional Orbital Nasal Terms Used to Designate Buccal (cheek) Oral Upper limb Acromial Specific Body Areas Mental (chin) Cervical Brachial (arm) Antecubital Thoracic Olecranal Sternal Antebrachial (forearm) Axillary Mammary Carpal (wrist) Abdominal Umbilical Manus (hand) Pelvic Metacarpal Inguinal Palmar (groin) Pollex Digital Lower limb Coxal (hip) Pubic (genital) Femoral (thigh) Patellar Popiliteal Crural (leg) Sural (calf) Fibular or peroneal Pedal (foot) Thorax Tarsal (ankle) Abdomen Calcaneal Metatarsal Back (Dorsum) Digital Plantar Figure 1.8a Regional terms used to Hallux designate specific body areas. (a) Anterior/Ventral Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved  Cephalic Otic Occipital (back Figure 1.8b Regional of head) Terms Used to Designate Upper limb Acromial Cervical Specific Body Areas Brachial (arm) Antecubital Olecranal Back (dorsal) Antebrachial Scapular (forearm) Carpal (wrist) Vertebral Lumbar Manus (hand) Metacarpal Sacral Palmar Pollex Gluteal Digital Perineal (between Lower limb anus and external Coxal (hip) genitalia) Femoral (thigh) Patellar Popliteal Crural (leg) Sural (calf) Fibular or peroneal Thorax Pedal (foot) Tarsal (ankle) Abdomen Calcaneal Metatarsal Back Figure 1.8b Regional terms (Dorsum) Digital Plantar used to designate specific Hallux body areas. (b) Posterior/Dorsal Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Body Planes and Sections (1 of 3) Body planes – Surfaces along which body or structures may be cut for anatomical study – Three most common planes:  Sagittal plane  Frontal (coronal) plane  Transverse (horizontal) plane Sections – Cuts or sections made along a body plane  Named after plane, so a sagittal cut results in a sagittal section Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Body Planes and Sections (2 of 3) Sagittal plane – Divides body vertically into right and left parts – Produces a sagittal section if cut along this plane – Midsagittal (median) plane  Cut was made perfectly on midline – Parasagittal plane  Cut was off-centered, not on midline Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Body Planes and Sections (3 of 3) Frontal (coronal) plane – Divides body vertically into anterior and posterior parts (front and back) – Produces a frontal or coronal section Transverse (horizontal) plane – Divides body horizontally (90° to vertical plane) into superior and inferior parts (top and bottom) – Produces a cross section Oblique section – Result of cuts at angle other than 90° to vertical plane Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Figure 1.9 Planes of the Body with Corresponding Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) Scans (a) Median (midsagittal) plane (b) Frontal (coronal) plane (c) Transverse plane Vertebral Right Left lung Liver Aorta Spleen column Heart lung Pancreas Figure 1.9 Planes of the body with correspondin g magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans. Rectum Intestines Liver Stomach Spleen Subcutaneous Spinal fat layer cord Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.6 Body Cavities and Membranes Body contains internal cavities that are closed to environment Cavities provide different degrees of protection to organs within them Two sets of cavities – Dorsal body cavity – Ventral body cavity Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Dorsal Body Cavity Protects fragile nervous system Two subdivisions – Cranial cavity  Encases brain – Vertebral cavity  Encases spinal cord Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Figure 1.10 Dorsal and Ventral Body Cavities and Their Subdivisions Cranial Cranial cavity cavity (contains brain) Vertebral cavity Superior mediastinum Dorsal body Thoracic cavity cavity Pleural (contains cavity heart and Pericardial lungs) cavity within the mediastinum Vertebral cavity Ventral body (contains spinal cavity Diaphragm (thoracic and cord) abdominopelvic cavities) Abdominal cavity (contains digestive Abdomino- viscera) pelvic cavity Pelvic cavity (contains urinary Dorsal body cavity bladder, reproductive organs, and rectum) Ventral body cavity (a) Lateral view (b) Anterior view Figure 1.10 Dorsal and ventral body cavities and their subdivisions. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Ventral Body Cavity (1 of 7) Houses the internal organs (collectively called viscera) Two subdivisions, which are separated by the diaphragm – Thoracic cavity – Abdominopelvic cavity Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Ventral Body Cavity (2 of 7) Thoracic cavity – Two pleural cavities  Each cavity surrounds one lung – Mediastinum  Contains pericardial cavity  Surrounds other thoracic organs, such as esophagus, trachea, etc. – Pericardial cavity  Encloses heart Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Ventral Body Cavity (3 of 7) Abdominopelvic cavity – Abdominal cavity  Contains stomach, intestines, spleen, and liver – Pelvic cavity  Contains urinary bladder, reproductive organs, and rectum Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Clinical – Homeostatic Imbalance 1.1 Problems occur when structures stray into neighboring cavities Example: hiatal hernia - part of stomach protrudes through diaphragm into thoracic cavity – Can push stomach acid into esophagus causing irritation  Referred to as heartburn – Severe cases may require surgical repair Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Ventral Body Cavity (4 of 7) Membranes in ventral body cavity – Serosa (also called serous membrane)  Thin, double-layered membranes that cover surfaces in ventral body cavity – Parietal serosa lines internal body cavity walls – Visceral serosa covers internal organs (viscera)  Double layers are separated by slit-like cavity filled with serous fluid  Fluid secreted by both layers of membrane Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Ventral Body Cavity (5 of 7) Named for specific cavity and organs that they are associated with – Pericardium  Heart – Pleurae  Lungs – Peritoneum  Abdominopelvic cavity Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Figure 1.11 Serous Membrane Relationships Outer balloon wall (comparable to parietal serosa) Air (comparable to serous cavity) Inner balloon wall (comparable to visceral serosa) (a) A fist thrust into a flaccid balloon demonstrates the relationship between the parietal and visceral serous membrane layers. Heart Parietal pericardium Pericardial space with serous fluid Visceral pericardium Figure 1.11 Serous membrane relationships. (b) The serosae associated with the heart. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Clinical – Homeostatic Imbalance 1.2 Serous membranes can become inflamed as a result of infection or other causes Normally smooth layers can become rough and even can stick together, resulting in excruciating pain Examples: pleurisy and peritonitis Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Ventral Body Cavity (6 of 7) Abdominopelvic quadrants and regions – Quadrants are divisions used primarily by medical personnel  Abdominopelvic region is sectioned into quarters – Right upper quadrant (RUQ) – Left upper quadrant (LUQ) – Right lower quadrant (RLQ) – Left lower quadrant (LLQ) Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Figure 1.12 The Four Abdominopelvic Quadrants Right upper Left upper quadrant quadrant (RUQ) (LUQ) Right lower Left lower quadrant quadrant (RLQ) (LLQ) Figure 1.12 The four abdominopelvic quadrants. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Ventral Body Cavity (7 of 7) Abdominopelvic quadrants and regions (cont.) – Nine divisions called regions, resembling a tic-tac-toe grid, are used primarily by anatomists  Right hypochondriac region  Epigastric region  Left hypochondriac region  Right lumbar region  Umbilical region  Left lumber region  Right Iliac (inguinal) region  Hypogastric region  Left iliac (inguinal) region Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Figure 1.13 The Nine Abdominopelvic Regions Right hypochondriac Epigastric Left hypochondriac region region region Right lateral Umbilical Left lateral (lumbar) region (lumbar) region region Right inguinal Pubic Left inguinal (iliac) region (hypogastric) (iliac) region region (a) Nine regions delineated by four planes Liver Diaphragm Spleen Gallbladder Stomach Ascending colon Transverse colon of large intestine of large intestine Small intestine Descending colon of large intestine Cecum Initial part of Appendix sigmoid colon Urinary bladder Figure 1.13 The nine abdominopelvic regions. (b) Anterior view of the nine regions showing the superficial organs Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Other Body Cavities In addition to the two main body cavities, the body has several smaller cavities that are exposed to environment – Oral and digestive cavities – Nasal cavity – Orbital cavities – Middle ear cavities Not exposed to environment – Synovial cavities: joint cavities Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved