Challenge & Change Exam Questions PDF

Challenge & Change Exam Questions: Unit 1: Introduction to the Social Sciences and Methods Correlations: - Correlation: Measure of a relationship between 2 variables - When to use: - Examine relationship between 2 sets of variables (ex. Grades and sl...

Challenge & Change Exam Questions: Unit 1: Introduction to the Social Sciences and Methods Correlations: - Correlation: Measure of a relationship between 2 variables - When to use: - Examine relationship between 2 sets of variables (ex. Grades and sleep). - Correlation DOES NOT mean one thing causes the other. There are sometimes other factors that can account for the negative/positive correlation (correlation ≠ causation) - 3 types of correlations: - Positive: Goes up - Negative: Goes down - No correlation: All over, no relation - Correlation coefficient (r): Number that describes direction and strength of relationship between two variables Qualitative: - Description: - Information expressed in words or actions - Open-ended questions - Descriptions and comparisons - Analysis is based on interpreting the meaning of information; considered more subjective - Examples: - Interviews - Observations - Research Methods: - Observations: Researcher watches and records subject’s behaviour. Should be in a natural setting (familiar to subject) and researcher should observe from a distance. - Participant Observation: Researcher is participant in group where subjects are aware they are being observed. - Interviews: Researcher asks subject to describe/explain their behaviour (ex. motivation behind their actions) Quantitative: - Description: - Numerical results - Close-ended questions - Considered more objective  - Examples: - Surveys - Laboratory based-observation - Research Methods: - Experiments: Experimenter manipulates independent variable to observe effects. 2 groups, experimental and control. Experimental variable is only applied to experimental group and control is left normally. - Surveys: Researcher asks sample group questions and records their answers. Questions should not be biassed or suggest that one answer is better than the other. - Content Analysis: Researcher examines and classifies ideas presented in sample group of communications (books, letters, movies, etc.) - Secondary Analysis: Researcher analyses data that has been gathered for another purpose in order to gather evidence for their own investigation. Psychology: influence individual behaviour - Conscious mind: The active and awake mind –decisions are thought about and made here - Unconscious mind: The dormant or latent mind –influences behaviours while awake, works through data/experiences while asleep - The Id: A part of the mind that seeks to meet basic physical needs and desires (food, sex, sleep, etc.) - The SuperEgo: A part of the mind that seeks to meet our most ideal standards, such as morality, social acceptability, etc. - The Ego: A part of the mind which acts as the balance between Id and SuperEgo - Neurotic: A state of mental disorder, usually the result of an unresolved conflict/issue from earlier in life (childhood) - Stimulus/Response: An event that stimulates sense(s) and the response that follows - Schools of Thought: - Psychoanalytic Theory: - Period: 1890-1930 - Typical Questions: - How does the unconscious mind affect our actions? - How can we understand and unlock the unconscious mind? - Central Approach: - The unconscious mind can be unlocked through dream analysis, hypnosis, making connections between life and manifestations of the unconscious mind  - - Learning Theory - Period: 1880-present - Typical Questions: - How do humans learn behaviour? - What mechanisms help people to learn behaviour? - Central Approach: - By controlling the ways humans learn we can influence both behaviour and personality - Anthropology: human societies, cultures and their development - Culture: all the ways of life including arts, beliefs and institutions of a population that are passed down from generation to generation - Binary opposite: A pair of direct and exact opposites like good and evil - Materialism: Technological and economic factors are of the highest importance - Determinism: Belief that all actions and events result from other actions - Infrastructure: Goods, services, materials needed for survival and prosperity - Kinship: human relations through mating, genealogy, adoption, defined by different cultures differently - Fictive kinship: Constructed kinships such as close family friends who are like family, Godparents, etc. - Patriarchy: sets the father as the head of the family and as such is typically responsible for decision making and earning an income. This also includes a subornation of other family members to the patriarch (from mild to very strong). Matriarchy is the feminine equivalent of patriarchy.  - Major Schools of Thought: There are many school of thoughts but these are the most major; - Functionalism: - Period: 1930-1960 - Typical Questions: - Purpose of institution: How does the institution (things that influence you) contribute to social stability? - Central Approach: To understand a culture, functions of social institutions must be understood - Cultural Materialism: - Period: 1970-present - Typical Questions: - How do population and economic factors influence culture: What laws of development apply to all cultures? - Central Approach: To understand a culture you must examine members’ reproduction and economic production Sociology: Study of society and human interactions - Institution: Organisations or establishments in society - Hierarchy: Ranking, sometimes connected with power or preference - Role: A position in society that comes with a perceived status and a set of values/expectations - Role Conflict: Experiencing opposing or conflicting demands of two or more roles - Values: A set of rules or ideals that tell us what is good/bad,desirable/undesirable - Norms: What is considered standard or “normal” behaviour - Deviance: Behaviour that is not considered “normal - Dysfunctional: Not completely functioning - Assimilationist: The practice or ideology of assimilation -the absorption of minorities by majorities - Major Schools of Thought: - Structural Functionalism: - Various segments of a society serve a purpose for the society as a whole (Systems/institutions and social stability) - Structural functionalists believe social problems are temporary and functions of social groups and institutions will improve over time - Ie. Family task is to raise children and provide emotional bonds where the school’s task is to provide children with important knowledge and skills - We need to know how a society works in order to meet it’s needs - Feminist Theory: Developing an Understanding of Gender Identity, Equity and Equality - Focusing on sex and gender issues (role of women in society/gender inequality)  - What does it mean to be a woman (as compared with a man)? - Who has power in society and who is marginalized? - How do institutions sustain the status quo? - Disagree on relevance and nature of issues as well as how to solve them - Institutions and systems are sexist and therefore dysfunctional. Equity does not properly exist. - Marxism/Conflict Theory: Defining Society Through Economic and Political Power - Occupy Movement of 2011 where many middle class citizens across North America took to the streets to protest class conflicts - 1% of the population who continued to get richer while the other 99% had to suffer and barely get by - How do institutions/power structures serve all citizens? - Economic and political power are keys to understanding Unit 2: Social Change: Psychology - In psychology, social change refers to the transformation of a person’s attitudes, beliefs, and behaviours and the effect of these transformations on the whole group or society. - The relationship between personal change and group development is important - Your participation and willingness to believe, act, value, and think a certain way is how psychologists study distinct changes in social attitudes and practices Anthropology - Anthropology: Study of human species and its origins and development of its origins in the development of its language and culture. - Culture is the shared symbols, values, beliefs and behaviours of a particular society. - Anthropologists contribute to the understanding of social change by examining past and present cultures around the world. - They often use participant observation where they immerse themselves in the culture of the people they wish to study. - They conduct important studies about kinship, family, and social organisation that help us reflect on how we live today and provide an understanding of the evolution of manysocial institutions. - They will also study how change comes about in cultural groups.  - They note whether the change occurs gradually and whether or not the change is beneficial. - They note that despite the factors that cultures can be very different, they believe that some common factor exist that cause all cultures to change (can be both internal and external). - Invention is the example of an internal factor Invention can be a new product, idea or social patterns that affects the way large groups conduct their daily lives. - Inventions can be on purpose to address a specific need or they can be unintentional; creating something that appears to be unimportant but ends up having a large impact on society. Sociology - Sociologists study interactions and conflicts within groups to determine how society functions. - They determine whether change is predictable or unpredictable, whether they are gradual or sudden and whether change occurs spontaneously or follows a specific course - Understanding previous conditions that brought about change is important as a new system often replace an obsolete one - Sociologists often look at statistical data when trying to predict trends and changes in society. Unit 3: Generational Characteristics: - Traditionalists/Silent Generation: - Majority (95%) of them have retired - have been through WWII - Possess intellectual capital and institutional knowledge - Have strong work values and ethic - See themselves as vigorous, contributing members of the workforce - Silent stoicism (not much feedback given or expected) - Baby Boomers: - The “Me” generation - More hours equals better performance; now regret - They are the managers that are running our organizations today - Career oriented - “Love the good life” - Love job performance feedback - Generation X: - The next generation of leaders  - The most well educated generation in comparison to their parents generation - Goal-oriented - Free Agents vs. Company Loyalist - Thrive on independence - Want to be challenged - Led dot.com boom - Millennials/Generation Y: - Value independence but need supervision - Look for new challenges - Challenge the status quo - “We’re all in this together” - Want the opportunity to make an impact - Fear boredom more than anything else - Generation Z: - money-driven and ambitious - love to travel. - prone to anxiety. - known to set boundaries. - avid gamers - strives for diversity - environmentally minded - values flexibility - very collaborative and social - Historical Events by Generation: - History of Adolescents/Family: - History of Adolescence: 1) Pre-industrialization (Pre1850): - Prior to industrialization children were seen as infants until they could take on some sort of productive work; roughly at 7-8. - After this point children worked for the benefit of the family. Social class determined whether a child would stay within the home or be forced to work elsewhere.  - A separation existed between children and their parents because of high infant mortality rates. Parents did not become too attached to their kids as a result. 2) Industrialization (Late 19th Century): - With the change in production from farm to factory, families moved into cities. - Children often would go to work with their fathers and any wage would become a part of the family income. - Young men and women enjoyed a new sense of freedom after the work day ended. - Children began to marry at a younger age and left the home. 3) 20th Century: - With growing pressure from women's groups child labour laws were enacted to remove children from dangerous factory jobs. - As families began to move to cities in increasing numbers, children had greater access to schools. - The law intervened in labor in the early part of the century to make schooling mandatory up to age 14. - This was later increased to age 16 because there was a problem with ‘idle’ children 4) Mid 20th Century: - As labour became more specialized, there was a growing recognition that educated young people stood a greater chance to gain meaningful employment. - As a working middle class emerged in society, young people were encouraged to pursue their studies. - This took pressure off of young people to find work and contribute to the family income. - Instead, young people began to experience an unprecedented amount of leisure time where little responsibility was expected from them. - In post WWII North America with the advent of the television age, a recognizable demographic group emerged known as the ‘teenager’. 5) Late 20th and 21st Century: - The latest trend with teenagers is described by sociologists as ‘an extended period of adolescence.’ - This means that individuals remain both emotionally and financially tied to their parents until their late twenties and beyond. - An emphasis on postsecondary education combined with an increasingly competitive job market has accounted for this change. - Consequently, adulthood is beginning to happen in a compressed time frame - Innovation of Adolescence: - Decline in Child Labor: As child labor became less common and more families could afford to support their children for longer, the idea of adolescence as a distinct stage of life emerged.  - Growth of Cities and Expanding Job Markets: Growth of cities created new opportunities for young people, and the need for a more educated workforce led to the development of high schools - Belief that teenagers need protection: Idea that teenagers are especially vulnerable and in need of protection from the dangers of the adult world became increasingly popular in the late 19th century. Deviance + Conformity: - Conformity: - When people act in accordance with expectations of the members of the group they’re surrounded with, they are conforming to the norms of that group. - Behaviour that follows an established practice; compliance with accepted behaviours or norms within society. - Deviance: - Behavior which departs from the socially accepted norm. - any behavior that violates social norms, and is usually of sufficient severity to warrant disapproval from the majority of society. - Deviance can be criminal or noncriminal. - When a group of people are acting in a deviant but similar way, a subculture is formed which is able to define its own behavioural norms. (Ex; Alcoholics Anonymous - a group for recovering alcoholics, LARPERS- Live Action Role Player) - We have codes of behavior in our lives that are written or explicitly stated (movie theatres, school codes of conduct, work expectations) and those that are unwritten (first dates, fancy restaurants), but neither of these categories guarantee that expected behavior will always be followed. - Causes of Deviance; Structural Strain Theory (Robert Merton): - Societies are characterized by both culture and social structure. - Culture establishes goals for people in society while social structure provides (or fails to provide) the means for people to achieve those goals. - When the goals and means are not in balance with each other, deviance is likely to occur. Unit 4: Terms: - Class: Group of people with a similar level of wealth and income - Social Stratification: Ranking of people in any given society by class and status - Stratified Society: Society in which there is unequal distribution of rewards among its members - Achieved Status: Social position attained by a person largely through his or her own effort  - Ascribed Status: Social position assigned to a person without regard for his or her characteristics or talents - Closed System: System with strict boundaries between different social positions - Intergenerational Mobility: Social movement experienced by family members from one generation to the next - Intragenerational Mobility: Social movement of individuals within their own lifetime - Open System: System in which boundaries between social positions are more flexible - Social Mobility: Movement of individuals our groups from one level in a stratification system to another. - Apartheid: Official policy of racial segregation formerly practiced in South Africa, involving political, legal, and economic discrimination against non-whites. - Class system: Type of stratification based on the ownership and control of resources and the type of work people do - Horizontal mobility: When people experience a gain or loss in position and/or income that does not produce a change in their place in the class structure - Vertical mobility: When people experience a gain or loss in position and/or income that causes movement up or down the class structure. - Power: Ability to exercise one’s will over others - Status Group: Group of people that have the same prestige or lifestyle - Meritocracy: Society where people are judged on their individual abilities rather than their family connections - Social Class: Segment of society whose members hold similar amounts of resources and often share values, norms, lifestyle, education, and type of work - Income: Amount of money received (wages, salaries, financial assistance) during a given time period by an individual or group - Wealth: Economic resources (property, land, cars, etc.) possessed by an individual or group. - Disposable income: Income left over after paying for necessities such as food, clothing, and accommodation. - Absolute poverty: Deprivation of resources that are considered essential enough food and fresh water, and a safe place to live. - Low income cut-offs (LICO): Statistical measure by Statistics Canada that is a means of further identifying economic inequality - Relative poverty: Measuring deprivation of some people against those who have more. - Glass ceiling: Invisible but real barrier through which the next stage or level of advancement can be seen, but cannot be reached by a section of qualified and deserving employees, Poverty: Poverty - Relative Poverty: Condition of having significantly lower income compared to the higher income groups within the same country. - Example: In the USA, earning less than $10,830 annually qualifies one as poor.  - Absolute Poverty: Condition of being unable to afford basic life necessities such as sanitation, shelter, clean water, nutrition, and healthcare. - Concentration: Predominantly found in the world's 60 poorest countries. - Poverty can be a social problem (lack of support) or a money problem (insufficient funding). - Ontario's poverty costs: $32-38 billion annually. - Interventions include affordable childcare, skills training, and recognizing credentials of new Canadians. - Moving a percentage of adults to higher income quartiles would significantly benefit the economy. Child Poverty: Globalization affects poverty reduction, with policies often driven by corporations rather than the populace. Worldwide child poverty statistics: 1 billion children live in poverty. 640 million lack adequate shelter. 400 million lack safe water. Canada's efforts to combat child poverty include public education systems, childcare services, and tax benefits for low-income families. Despite initiatives, Canada spends less on benefits compared to other OECD countries and has not fully achieved child poverty reduction goals. International Efforts: The World Bank: aims to help developing countries through financial aid and technical assistance. Comprises two entities: IBRD (reduces poverty in middle-income countries) and IDA (focuses on the poorest countries). Child poverty is a significant global issue affecting health, social stability, and economic development. Key Definitions: Income Disparity: The growing gap between high-income and low-income earners. Literacy: The ability to read and write, essential for higher education and employment. Gross Domestic Product (GDP): The total dollar value of all goods and services produced in a country over a specific period, used to gauge economic health. Systems of Stratification: Timeline for the Origins of Social Stratification: - Pre-5000 BCE: - Hunting and gathering societies exhibit little social stratification. - Nomadic societies depend on shared resources due to limited possessions and mobility. - 5000 BCE: - Earliest forms of social stratification observed in hunting and gathering societies. - Limited stratification based on age and sex; men hold power over children and dominate women. - Horticultural and Pastoral Societies: - Emergence of horticultural and pastoral societies. - Reliable food sources lead to increased specialization. - Surplus food production leads to social status gaps and elaboration of social structures. - Industrial Age: - Industrialization leads to an elaborate and flexible system of stratification. - Development of distinct social classes based on occupation and wealth. - Middle-class jobs increasingly require post-secondary education. - Post-Industrial Age: - Shift towards service and information-based economy. - Further emphasis on education for middle-class jobs. - Present Day: - Ongoing debate on whether inequality is inevitable or socially constructed. - Most societies exhibit structured systems of inequality based on class, gender, ethnicity, and age. - Social stratification determines individuals' experiences and opportunities. - Sociologists distinguish between closed systems (e.g., slavery, caste) and open systems (e.g., class system). - Closed systems offer little social mobility and rigid boundaries between levels. - Open systems allow for more flexibility and mobility, influenced by achieved status. - Examples of closed systems include slavery, where individuals are treated as property. - Slavery originated with the development of agriculture and specialization of labor. - Future: - Social stratification continues to evolve alongside societal changes. - Further shifts in technology, economy, and social values may influence the nature of stratification. Theories of Global Stratification 1. Modernization Theory Focus: Transformation of "traditional" societies into "western/modern" societies.  Characteristics: Economic growth and technological advancements lead to societal changes and globalization. 2. Dependency Theory Focus: Wealth flows from poorer to wealthier countries, leading to exploitation. Characteristics: Developing countries export raw materials to developed countries, which sell finished products back at higher prices. 3. World-System Theory Focus: A global system with an international division of labor. Characteristics: Hierarchy of nations - core (developed), semi-peripheral (developing), and peripheral (least developed) nations, with core nations exerting influence over global trade. Industrial Revolution: 1. Working Conditions Prior to the Industrial Revolution: Before the Industrial Revolution, most economic activities were conducted on a small scale, including farming and artisan handicrafts. Society maintained social structures that had been consistent since the Middle Ages, and most people lived in small or medium-sized villages. Family units were both functional and economic entities, typically involving a division of labor among family members. The main social classes were peasants or farmers and the landowners or aristocracy. Energy sources were limited to human and animal muscle power and waterwheels. 2. Changes in Society Due to the Industrial Revolution (Slides 3-10): The Industrial Revolution drastically altered societal structures and economic practices. Key changes included: Migration: A significant population increase led many to leave agricultural lifestyles and move to urban centers seeking employment. This shift resulted in substantial urbanization, with about 50% of the British population living in cities by 1850. Labor: The introduction of factory-based industry and mechanization, such as the steam engine, changed the nature of work. Production became faster, and tasks were subdivided into less skilled processes, leading to a de-skilling of the workforce. Family Structure: The rise of industrial cities and factory production led to a separation of home and workplace, particularly affecting male workers who often left their families for jobs in cities. Women and Children: Women, including mothers, and children were heavily employed in industries like textiles under poor conditions, with extensive working hours and low pay. 3. Results of the Industrial Revolution (Slides 11-12): The Industrial Revolution led to several critical outcomes: Economic Shifts: Mechanization and the factory system increased productivity and profits for owners but not for workers. The wealth generated did not trickle down to the working class, who faced low wages and poor living conditions. Working Conditions: Workers endured long hours, unsafe working environments, and lack of a social safety net. This period was marked by workplace accidents, chronic health issues, and economic instability without government support. Societal Reforms: By the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the severe abuses of the factory system led to labor reforms and the organization of workers into unions, which fought for better wages, hours, and conditions. 4. Reading the Maclean's Article: To access and summarize the article from Maclean's as linked on the last slide, I would need internet access to view it directly or have the content of the article provided here. If you can share the text or main points of the article, I'd be happy to help summarize it for you! Industrialization and its Global Impacts: Gross National Income (GNI) - Definition: Total wealth accumulated by a country's residents and businesses, divided by the population. - Indicator of: The average pre-tax income of a country's citizens. Economic Globalization: Theories of Economic Globalization (increasing interdependence of world economies): - Modernization Theory (Rostow): Emerged in the late 1940s and popular in the 1950s, this theory explains societal transition from "traditional" to "modern" through economic growth and technology. Walt Whitman Rostow argued that low-income countries must adopt Western values and technologies to progress economically, as traditional values hinder growth. - Dependency Theory: Developed in the late 1950s as a reaction to Modernization Theory, it argues that wealth flows from poorer to wealthier countries, causing economic disparities and dependency. Raul Prebisch highlighted that developing countries are exploited for their resources and labor, leading to global poverty due to unfair trade practices. - World Systems Theory: Created in the late 1950s, this theory divides the global economy into core, semi-peripheral, and peripheral nations, emphasizing structural  inequalities. Immanuel Wallerstein focused on how the capitalist world economy creates a global division of labor, with core nations exploiting peripheral ones. - New International Division of Labor Theory: Over the past few decades, this theory explains the global shift in production to developing countries with lower labor costs. Advancements in transportation and communication have enabled companies to relocate production, leading to Export Processing Zones (EPZs) where goods are produced with minimal regulations for global sale. Modernization Theory (Rostow) When: Emerged in the late 1940s, popular in the 1950s. What: Modernization theory seeks to explain how societies transform from "traditional" to "modern" states. It posits that economic growth and technological advancements lead to societal modernization. Rostow's Stages of Economic Growth model outlines five stages of economic development, arguing that low-income countries must adopt Western values and technologies to progress economically. Who: Key proponent - Walt Whitman Rostow. He argued that traditional values hinder economic growth and that societies must embrace rational, individualistic values for modernization. Dependency Theory When: Emerged in the late 1950s as a reaction to modernization theory. What: Dependency theory argues that wealth flows from poorer to wealthier countries, causing economic disparities. It claims that developing countries are exploited for their resources and labor, leading to poverty and dependency. This theory suggests that global poverty is due to the exploitation of developing countries by developed countries through unfair trade practices. Who: Key proponent - Raul Prebisch. His studies indicated that economic activities in developed countries often caused economic issues in developing countries, contrary to modernization theory predictions. World Systems Theory When: Developed in the late 1950s. What: This theory posits that the global capitalist economy is divided into a hierarchy of core, semi-peripheral, and peripheral nations. Core nations are economically advanced and exploit peripheral nations for resources and labor. Semi-peripheral nations fall in between, both exploiting and being exploited. This model emphasizes the global system rather than individual nation-states and suggests that mobility within this hierarchy is possible but maintains overall structural inequalities. Who: Key proponent - Immanuel Wallerstein. He focused on the capitalist world economy and how it creates a global division of labor. New International Division of Labor Theory When: Over the last few decades. What: This theory explains the global shift in production processes to take advantage of lower labor costs in developing countries. It highlights how advancements in transportation and communication have enabled companies to relocate production to the most cost-effective locations. This has led to the creation of Export Processing Zones (EPZs) where goods can be produced with minimal regulations and then sold globally. Who: Not attributed to a single proponent but reflects broader trends in global economic practices driven by multinational corporations seeking profit maximization through international labor division. Global Inequalities: The World Bank Role: Promotes economic and social progress in developing countries. Function: A development institution that provides loans for capital projects. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) Role: Fosters global monetary cooperation. Function: Acts as a "lender of last resort" when a country's currency is in trouble. The World Trade Organization (WTO) Role: Deals with the global rules of trade between nations. Function: Ensures that trade flows as smoothly, predictably, and freely as possible. Neoliberalism Definition: A policy model that emphasizes free market competition and minimal state intervention. Characteristics: Reduction of public spending, cutting salaries, privatization, restricting collective bargaining. Subsidize Definition: Having part of the cost of production paid for to keep the selling price low. Example: The USA subsidizes cotton to maintain lower prices. Tariff  Definition: A tax imposed by a government on the import or export of goods. Purpose: Source of revenue for the government and a means to regulate foreign trade. Functions of the World Bank and IMF World Bank: Provides loans for capital projects to promote economic and social progress. IMF: Offers monetary cooperation and provides financial assistance to stabilize international exchange rates and financial systems. Theorists: - Emile Durkheim (1858-1917): - Social change is inevitable and follows a logical and predictable path - Society becomes more complex as it becomes more diverse - Karl Marx (1818-1883): - Social change is the result of competition and the conflict that arises between social classes battling for power and economic resources - Social change needs to go through a series of stages to arrive at the desired goal - Structural Strain Theory (Robert Merton): - Societies are characterized by both culture and social structure. - Culture establishes goals for people in society while social structure provides (or fails to provide) the means for people to achieve those goals. - When the goals and means are not in balance with each other, deviance is likely to occur. - - Led to Bandura to make 5 key tenants of learning theory; 1) Learning is a conscious process 2) Learning can occur by observing behaviour 3) Learning can happen without observing behaviour 4) Reinforcements (praising) play a role but aren’t entirely responsible for learning 5) Cognition, behaviour, and environment all influence each other