Chapter 9: Developing Psychology Outline - PDF

Chapter Outline: Chapter 9 What Factors Shape Development? A. developmental psychology: the study of changes, over the life span, in physiology, cognition, emotion, and social behavior I. Human Development Starts in the Womb and Extends into Adulthood...

Chapter Outline: Chapter 9 What Factors Shape Development? A. developmental psychology: the study of changes, over the life span, in physiology, cognition, emotion, and social behavior I. Human Development Starts in the Womb and Extends into Adulthood A. conception → zygote → embryo → fetus B. Brain development 1. Specific areas within the brain mature and become functional. 2. Regions of the brain learn to communicate with one another through synaptic connections. 3. Myelination increases the speed with which the fibers are able to transmit signals. 4. Synaptic pruning is a process whereby the synaptic connections in the brain that are used are preserved, and those that are not used are lost. C. Early Experiences Can Have Lasting Effects 1. Nutrition affects aspects of brain development beginning in the womb and extending through childhood. 2. Environmental influences and experiences can also influence the development of human brains. a. stressful early life experiences can lead to a wide range of mental and physical health disorders later in life b. supportive and enriched environments can foster development D. Exposure to Teratogens During Prenatal Development 1. Teratogens include:  a. drugs b. alcohol c. bacteria d. viruses e. chemicals 2. fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) II. Biology and Environment Influence Motor Development A. Infant reflexes 1. grasping reflex 2. rooting reflex 3. sucking reflex B. dynamic systems theory: new forms of behavior emerge through consistent interactions between a biological being and cultural and environmental contexts III. Infants Are Prepared to Learn A. Perception 1. Vision develops more slowly than hearing. 2. The ability to distinguish differences among shapes, patterns, and colors is known as visual acuity. 3. preferential-looking technique 4. respond more to high-contrast, complex visual patterns 5. preference for faces over nonfaces 5. have memory for voices 6. prefer their mothers’ voices  7. Habituation technique: A way to study how infants categorize a series of objects based on the principle that after looking at objects that are all from the same category, babies will look for a longer time at objects from a new category. B. Memory 1. Inability to remember events from early childhood (infantile amnesia) may be related to: a. incomplete development of autobiographical memory b. incomplete language acquisition c. incomplete ability to perceive contexts well enough to store memories accurately IV. You Be the Psychologist: Does Mozart Make You Smarter? V. Infants Develop Attachments A. attachment: a strong, intimate, emotional connection between people that persists over time and across circumstances B. Attachment in ospecies 1. is present in other species (imprinting) C. Attachment Style 1. strange-situation test a. Most infants display a secure attachment style 2. complex developmental phenomenon 3. shaped by the cultural context that surrounds the infant/caregiver relationship D. Chemistry of attachment  1. Oxytocin plays a role: a. in infant/caregiver attachment b. later in romantic relationships How Do Children Learn About the World? VI. Piaget Emphasized Stages of Cognitive Development A. assimilation: the process by which new information is placed into an existing scheme B. accommodation: the process by which a new scheme is created, or an existing scheme is drastically altered to include new information that otherwise would not fit into the scheme C. The four stages of development: 1. sensorimotor 2. preoperational 3. concrete operational 4. formal operational D. Defining the four stages: 1. Sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years) a. Infants acquire information about the world through senses and motor skills. b. Children come to understand object permanence. 2. Preoperational stage (2–7 years) a. can think symbolically b. reason based on intuition and superficial appearance rather than logic c. do not understand law of conservation 3. Concrete operational stage (7–12 years)  a. can think logically b. understand law of conservation 4. Formal operational stage (12 years to adulthood) a. People can think abstractly, critically, and hypothetically. VII. Piaget Underestimated Children’s Cognitive Abilities A. Lev Vygotsky emphasized social relations over objects in thinking about cognitive development. B. understanding the laws of nature: physics C. understanding the laws of nature: mathematics VIII. Children Learn from Interacting with Others A. Language 1. Caregivers speak to infants in a distinctive pattern that helps their children learn the sounds involved in speech and the boundaries between words. B. Theory of mind 1. ability to understand that other people have mental states that influence their behavior C. Understanding social emotions 1. Having insight into other minds enables us to predict how other people will feel in a given situation. IX. Moral Development Begins in Childhood A. Kohlberg’s levels of moral development 1. preconventional level: moral behavior determined by self- interest and event outcomes 2. conventional level: moral behavior determined by strict adherence to societal rules and the approval of others  3. postconventional level: moral behavior based on abstract principles and the value of all life B. Innate sense of fairness as the basis of morality 1. inequity aversion a. preference to avoid unfairness when making decisions about the distribution of resources B. Emotions as the basis of morality 1. social intuitionist model a. the idea that moral judgments reflect people’s initial and automatic emotional responses X. You Be the Psychologist: Is Screen Time Unhealthy for Children? What Changes During Adolescence? XI. Puberty Causes Physical Changes A. Puberty is the onset of sexual maturity that marks the beginning of adolescence, which include: 1. adolescent growth spurt 2. primary sex characteristics 3. secondary sexual characteristics 4. the dynamic interaction between biological systems and environmental experiences B. Biology and environment 1. The frontal cortex of the brain is not fully myelinated until the mid-20s. XII. A Sense of Identity Forms A. Erikson’s development stages and major psychosocial crises:  1. infancy (ages 0–1): trust versus mistrust 2. toddler (1–3): autonomy versus shame and doubt 3. preschool (3–6): initiative versus guilt 4. childhood (6–12): industry versus inferiority 5. adolescence (12–18): identity versus role confusion 6. young adulthood (18–29): intimacy versus isolation 7. middle adulthood (30s to 50s): generativity versus stagnation 8. old age (60s and beyond): integrity versus despair B. Sex and gender identity 1. gender identity: one’s sense of being male or female 2. gender role: a behavior that is typically associated with being male or female C. Cultural and ethnic identity 1. In addition to a gender identity, each adolescent— especially those from underrepresented groups—must work to establish a racial or ethnic identity. The process of forming such an identity can be particularly complicated. XIII. Peers and Caregivers Shape the Adolescent Self A. The relative importance of peers and caregivers 1. peers’ influences 2. caregivers’ perceptions a. Research has confirmed that caregivers have substantial influence throughout an individual’s life. 3. teens’ active exploration of the world B. Bullying  1. Bullying is a complex behavior with many contributing factors. What Brings Meaning in Adulthood? XIV. Adults Are Affected by Life Transitions A. Physical changes from early to middle adulthood 1. Life expectancy in 1900 was 47 years. 2. Between the ages of 20 and 40, people experience a steady decline in muscle mass, bone density, eyesight, and hearing. 3. As people approach middle age, they start to notice that they can no longer drink as much alcohol, eat as much unhealthy food, or function on as little sleep as they could in their 20s. B. Marriage 1. In adulthood, people devote a great deal of effort to achieving and maintaining satisfying relationships. 2. Married people live longer than people who were never married, are divorced, or are widowed. 3. Unhappily married people are at greater risk for poor health and early death. XV. Psychology Outside the Lab: Will Parenthood Make You Happy? XVI. Cognition Changes with Age A. Memory 1. Learning new things and retrieving memories become more difficult. B. Intelligence 1. Fluid intelligence declines and crystallized intelligence increases.  2. People who are healthy and mentally active demonstrate less of a decline. C. Dementia and Alzheimer’s disease 1. Old age is characterized by deterioration in physical and cognitive abilities. 2. Older adults who experience a dramatic loss in mental ability often suffer from dementia. XVII. The Transition to Old Age Can Be Satisfying A. Attitudes toward aging are changing as people live long and fulfilling lives. B. Meaning 1. Socioemotional selectivity theory: As people grow older, they view time as limited and therefore shift their focus to meaningful events, experiences, and goals.