Ch. 2 Generating and Applying Combat Power PDF

Chapter 2 Generating and Applying Combat Power If you know the enemy and know yourself, your victory will not stand in doubt; if you know Heaven and know Earth, you may make your victory complete....

Chapter 2 Generating and Applying Combat Power If you know the enemy and know yourself, your victory will not stand in doubt; if you know Heaven and know Earth, you may make your victory complete. Sun Tzu Army forces integrate capabilities and synchronize warfighting functions to generate combat power and apply it against enemy forces. Successful application of combat power requires leaders to understand the enemy and understand friendly capabilities. A broad understanding of the strategic environment and threat methods provides a basis for understanding specific enemy situations. Leaders must understand how Army forces enable joint operations through multiple domains and the basic roles of Army echelons. They must also understand how the joint force enables the Army to integrate capabilities through all domains to generate more effective landpower. WARFIGHTING FUNCTIONS A warfighting function is a group of tasks and systems united by a common purpose that commanders use to accomplish missions and training objectives (ADP 3-0). The warfighting functions are— z Command and control (C2). z Movement and maneuver. z Intelligence. z Fires. z Sustainment. z Protection. The purpose of warfighting functions is to provide an intellectual organization for common critical capabilities available to commanders and staffs at all echelons and levels of war. Warfighting functions are not confined to single domain, and they typically include capabilities from multiple domains. Warfighting functions are not branch specific. Although some branches, staff sections, and types of units have a role or purpose that mainly aligns with a warfighting function, each warfighting function is relevant to all types of units. THE COMMAND AND CONTROL WARFIGHTING FUNCTION The command and control warfighting function is the related tasks and a system that enable commanders to synchronize and converge all elements of combat power (ADP 3-0). The primary purpose of the C2 warfighting function is to assist commanders in integrating the other warfighting functions (movement and maneuver, intelligence, fires, sustainment, and protection) effectively at each echelon, and to apply combat power to achieve objectives and accomplish missions. The C2 system includes people, processes, networks, and command posts. All elements of the system are critical in supporting effective decision making and the tempo required to defeat enemy forces. C2 supports the creation and exploitation of information advantages through the activities of developing situational understanding, decision making, and operating networks. C2 synchronizes the systems and capabilities that comprise the other warfighting functions. Strategy, operational art, planning, operational approaches, operational frameworks, risk assessment, and decision 01 October 2022 FM 3-0 2-1 Chapter 2 making are all part of C2. C2 reflects leader action and how Army forces achieve unity of effort and unity of purpose during operations. (See ADP 6-0 for more information on C2.) THE MOVEMENT AND MANEUVER WARFIGHTING FUNCTION The movement and maneuver warfighting function is the related tasks and systems that move and employ forces to achieve a position of relative advantage over the enemy and other threats (ADP 3-0). Direct fire and close combat are inherent in maneuver. The movement and maneuver warfighting function includes tasks associated with force projection. Movement is necessary to position and disperse the force as a whole or in part when maneuvering. Maneuver directly gains or exploits positions of relative advantage. Commanders use maneuver for massing effects to achieve surprise, shock, and momentum. Effective maneuver requires some combination of reconnaissance, surveillance, and security operations to provide early warning and protect the main body of the formation. Every Soldier on the battlefield is a potential sensor that makes key contributions to information collection and the development of intelligence. Effective maneuver requires close coordination of fires and movement. Movement and maneuver contribute to the development of information advantages through the positioning of units able to employ capabilities in close proximity to the enemy, as well as by physically establishing the facts on the ground that an enemy or adversary cannot refute. Maneuver requires sustainment. The movement and maneuver warfighting function does not include routine transportation of personnel and materiel that support operations, which falls under the sustainment warfighting function. THE INTELLIGENCE WARFIGHTING FUNCTION The intelligence warfighting function is the related tasks and systems that facilitate understanding the enemy, terrain, weather, civil considerations, and other significant aspects of the operational environment (ADP 3-0). Intelligence involves analyzing information from all sources, which includes the other warfighting functions, and conducting operations to collect information. The integration of intelligence into operations facilitates understanding of an operational environment and assists in determining when and where to employ capabilities against adversaries and enemies. Intelligence likewise facilitates responses by Army forces to other situations, such as public health crises and events precipitating noncombatant evacuation. The intelligence warfighting function provides support to force generation, situational understanding, targeting and information operations, and information collection. The intelligence warfighting function fuses the information collected through reconnaissance, surveillance, security operations, and intelligence operations. Commanders drive intelligence and intelligence drives operations. Army forces execute intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR) through the operations and intelligence processes, with an emphasis on intelligence analysis and information collection. Timely, accurate, relevant, and predictive intelligence enables decision making, tempo, and agility during operations. Due to the fog and friction of warfare, commanders must fight for intelligence and share it with adjacent units and across echelons. (See ADP 2-0 for additional information on the intelligence warfighting function.) THE FIRES WARFIGHTING FUNCTION The fires warfighting function is the related tasks and systems that create and converge effects in all domains against the adversary or enemy to enable operations across the range of military operations (ADP 3-0). These tasks and systems create lethal and nonlethal effects delivered from both Army and joint forces and other unified action partners. The fires warfighting function does not entirely encompass, nor is it wholly encompassed by, any particular branch or function. Many of the capabilities that contribute to fires also contribute to other warfighting functions, often simultaneously. For example, an aviation unit may simultaneously execute missions that contribute to the movement and maneuver, fires, intelligence, sustainment, protection, and C2 warfighting functions. Space and cyberspace capabilities can provide commanders with options to defeat, destroy, disrupt, deny, or manipulate enemy networks, information, and decision making. (See ADP 3-19 for additional information on the fires warfighting function.) 2-2 FM 3-0 01 October 2022  Generating and Applying Combat Power THE SUSTAINMENT WARFIGHTING FUNCTION The sustainment warfighting function is the related tasks and system that provide support and services to ensure freedom of action, extended operational reach, and prolong endurance (ADP 3-0). Sustainment employs capabilities from all domains and enables operations through each domain. Sustainment determines the limits of depth and endurance during operations. Sustainment demands joint and strategic integration, and it should be meticulously coordinated across echelons to ensure continuity of operations and that resources reach the point of employment. Sustainment employs an integrated network of information systems linking sustainment to operations. As a result, commanders at all levels see an operational environment, anticipate requirements in time and space, understand what is needed, track and deliver what is requested, and make timely decisions to ensure responsive sustainment. Because the situation is always changing, sustainment requires leaders capable of improvisation. Because sustainment operations are often vulnerable to enemy attacks, sustainment survivability depends on active and passive measures and maneuver forces for protection. (See ADP 4-0 and FM 4-0 for more information on sustainment.) THE PROTECTION WARFIGHTING FUNCTION The protection warfighting function is the related tasks, systems, and methods that prevent or mitigate detection, threat effects, and hazards to preserve combat power and enable freedom of action. Protection encompasses everything that makes Army forces hard to detect and destroy. Protection requires commanders and staffs to understand threats and hazards throughout the operational environment, prioritize their requirements, and commit capabilities and resources according to their priorities. Commanders balance their protection efforts with the need for tempo and resourcing the main effort. They may assume risk in operations or areas that may be vulnerable, but that are considered low enemy priorities for targeting or attack. Commanders account for threats from space, cyberspace, and outside their assigned area of operations (AO) as they develop protection measures. Protection results from many factors, including operations security, dispersion, deception, survivability measures, and the way forces conduct operations. Planning, preparing, executing, and assessing protection is a continuous and enduring activity. Defending networks, data, and systems; implementing operations security; and conducting security operations contribute to information advantages by protecting friendly information. Prioritization of protection capabilities is situationally dependent and resource informed. (See ADP 3-37 for additional information on protection.) COMBAT POWER Combat power is the total means of destructive and disruptive force that a military unit/formation can apply against an enemy at a given time (JP 3-0). It is the ability to fight. The complementary and reinforcing effects that result from synchronized operations yield a powerful blow that overwhelms enemy forces and creates friendly momentum. Army forces deliver that blow through a combination of five dynamics. The dynamics of combat power are— z Leadership. z Firepower. z Information. z Mobility. z Survivability. All warfighting functions contribute to generating and applying combat power. Well sustained units able to move and maneuver bring combat power to bear against the opponent. Joint and Army indirect fires complement and reinforce organic firepower in maneuver units. Survivability is a function of protection tasks, the protection inherent to Army platforms, and schemes of maneuver that focus friendly strengths against enemy weaknesses. Intelligence determines how and where to best apply combat power against enemy weaknesses. C2 enables leadership, the most important qualitative aspect of combat power. 01 October 2022 FM 3-0 2-3 Chapter 2 LEADERSHIP Leadership is the most essential dynamic of combat power. Leadership is the activity of influencing people by providing purpose, direction, and motivation to accomplish the mission and improve the organization (ADP 6-22). It is the multiplying and unifying dynamic of combat power, and it represents the qualitative difference between units. Leadership drives C2 but is also dependent upon it. The collaboration and shared understanding inherent in the operations process prepare leaders for operations, expand shared understanding, hone leader judgment, and improve the flexibility that leaders apply to the other dynamics of combat power against enemy forces. Commanders communicate their will to their formations through leadership. Sound leadership manifests as an unrelenting will to accomplish the mission, the ability to understand and adapt to changing conditions, and the motivation to persevere through hardship. Leadership inspires individuals to push past their perceived breaking point, and to fight for their unit and fellow Soldiers under the most difficult circumstances. It provides the intangible qualitative difference in how much combat power a formation can generate against enemy forces. (See ADP 6-22 for information on leadership.) FIREPOWER Firepower is the primary source of lethality, and it is essential to defeating an enemy force’s ability and will to fight. Leaders generate firepower through direct and indirect fires, using mass, precision, or, typically, a combination of the two. Intelligence enables the identification and selection of targets and objectives for the application of lethal force. Movement and maneuver enable the positioning of fires capabilities where they can be most lethal. Firepower facilitates maneuver by suppressing enemy fires and disrupting or preventing the movement of enemy forces. Firepower exploits maneuver by neutralizing enemy forces when they react, destroying equipment and people, and degrading the will of enemy forces to fight. Leaders increase firepower by using capabilities from all domains in combinations that overwhelm an enemy Large-scale combat operations can force's ability to effectively respond. This is ammunition consume corps and division ammunition intensive. Discretion may require leaders to reserve limited stocks in 72 to 96 hours, particularly those numbers of precision munitions for specific, important required for cannons, rockets, and targets, while they rely on conventional unguided munitions mortars. against enemy units and area targets. Large-scale combat requires large reserves of both precision and unguided munitions and the sustainment capacity to move them to forward locations. Air, maritime, space, and cyberspace-based fires enhance the firepower of ground forces. Similarly, ground-based firepower complements firepower from other domains. A multidomain approach to firepower requires understanding the techniques for controlling and integrating joint fires. This includes requesting and integrating space and cyberspace capabilities, electromagnetic attack capabilities, and air capabilities. INFORMATION Information contributes to the disruption and destruction of enemy forces. It is central to the application and amplification of combat power. It enables decision making and influences enemy perceptions, decision making, and behavior. Information, like leadership, provides a qualitative advantage to friendly combat power when it can be acted upon more quickly and effectively than the enemy. Army forces collect data and information for analysis and process it to understand situations, make decisions, and direct actions that apply combat power against enemy forces. Army forces must fight for information about enemy forces while protecting their own information. Friendly counterintelligence, counterreconnaissance, and security operations prevent enemy access to friendly information. Offensively, commanders fight for information about enemy forces and terrain through continuous reconnaissance and surveillance and offensive tasks such as movement to contact or reconnaissance in force. Army forces also use information to enhance the effects of destructive or disruptive physical force to create psychological effects that disrupt morale, cause human error, and increase uncertainty. Using 2-4 FM 3-0 01 October 2022  Generating and Applying Combat Power information to manipulate shock and confusion amplifies the psychological effects of lethality and other dynamics of combat power. Employing information to confuse, manipulate, or deceive can induce threats to act in ways that make them more vulnerable to destruction by Army forces. Employing information creatively can enable Army forces to achieve surprise, cause enemy forces to misallocate or expend combat power, or mislead them as to the strength, readiness, locations, and intended missions of friendly forces. MOBILITY Mobility is a quality or capability of military forces which permits them to move from place to place while retaining the ability to fulfill their primary mission (JP 3-36). Mobility encompasses the capability of a formation to move and apply capabilities in specific terrain under specific conditions relative to enemy forces. Exploiting mobility requires intelligence of an enemy force’s disposition, composition, strength, and course of action. This understanding allows leaders to assess their mobility in relation to adversary or enemy forces. Maneuver and fires increase relative mobility by fixing enemy units, reducing obstacles, and providing obscuration. The environment impacts mobility and the level of combat power a unit can produce. For example, an armored brigade combat team’s (BCT’s) mobility is limited in dense jungle or urban terrain, but it increases in steppes, in deserts, and on modern roads. Weather affects mobility when it degrades route conditions, or when it increases risks to fixed- and rotary- wing aviation operations. Space-based environmental monitoring provides real-time understanding of the impacts of weather on terrain and mobility. Enemy forces also influence conditions that affect mobility. For example, enemy standoff approaches can isolate land forces operating on islands in maritime environments by destroying maritime transportation capabilities and denying friendly air support. Mobility is a function of how quickly units can move in specific terrain under specific conditions. At the tactical level, Army forces exploit mobility to conduct information collection, posture forces in advantageous locations, position fires to range enemy forces, and move classes of supply around an AO. During offensive operations, mobility enables forces to concentrate and then disperse rapidly, achieve surprise, attack enemy forces in unexpected locations, exploit opportunity, and evade enemy fires. During defensive operations, mobility enables counterattacks and the ability to rapidly shift resources between fixed positions. The ability to conduct gap crossings and passage of lines are other operations that can facilitate mobility. SURVIVABILITY Survivability is a quality or capability of military forces which permits them to avoid or withstand hostile actions or environmental conditions while retaining the ability to fulfill their primary mission (ATP 3-37.34). It represents the degree to which a formation is hard to kill. Survivability is relative to a unit’s capabilities and the type of enemy effects it must withstand, its ability to avoid detection, and how well it can deceive enemy forces. Survivability is also a function of how a formation conducts itself during operations. For example, an infantry BCT’s survivability against indirect fire is contingent on it not being detected, being dispersed, digging in, and adding overhead cover when stationary. An armor BCT’s survivability is a function of logistics, security, and avoiding situations that constrain its mobility or freedom of action. Leaders assess survivability as the ability of a friendly force to withstand enemy effects while remaining mission capable. Armor protection, mobility, tactical skill, avoiding predictability, and situational awareness contribute to survivability. Enforcement of operations security techniques and avoiding detection while initiating direct fire contact on favorable terms also increases survivability. Situational awareness regarding the nine forms of contact and minimizing friendly signatures contributes to survivability. To increase survivability, units employ air defense systems, reconnaissance and security operations, modify tempo, take evasive action, maneuver to gain positional advantages, decrease electromagnetic signatures, and disperse forces. Dispersed formations improve survivability by complicating targeting and making it more difficult for enemy forces to identify lucrative targets. Tactical units integrate procedures for the use of camouflage, cover, concealment, and conducting electromagnetic protection—including noise and light discipline. During large-scale combat operations, survivability measures may include radio silence, 01 October 2022 FM 3-0 2-5 Chapter 2 communication through couriers, or alternate forms of communication. Space-based missile warning systems provide early warning of adversary artillery and missile attacks, allowing friendly forces to seek cover. Application of chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear (CBRN) defense measures increase survivability in CBRN environments. (See ATP 3-37.34 for more information on survivability.) STRATEGIC ENVIRONMENT The central challenge to U.S. security is the reemergence of long-term, great power competition with China and Russia as individual actors and as actors working together to achieve common goals. China uses its rapidly modernizing military, information warfare, and predatory economics to coerce neighboring countries to reorder the Indo-Pacific region to its advantage. Concurrently, Russia seeks veto authority over nations on its periphery in terms of its governmental, economic, and diplomatic decisions, to subvert the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), and to change European and Middle East security and economic structures to its favor. In addition to China and Russia, several other states threaten U.S. security. North Korea seeks to guarantee survival of its regime and increase its leverage. It is pursuing a mixture of CBRN, conventional, and unconventional weapons and a growing ballistic missile capability to gain coercive influence over South Korea, Japan, and the United States. Similarly, Iran seeks dominance over its neighbors by asserting an arc of influence and instability while vying for regional hegemony. Iran uses state-sponsored terrorist activities, a network of proxies, and its missile capabilities to achieve its objectives. While states are the principal actors on the global stage, non-state actors also threaten the strategic environment with increasingly sophisticated capabilities. Terrorists, transnational criminal organizations, threat cyber actors, and other malicious non-state actors have transformed global affairs with increased capabilities of mass disruption. Terrorism remains a persistent tactic driven by ideology and enabled by political and economic structures. THREATS A threat is any combination of actors, entities, or forces that have the capability and intent to harm United States forces, United States national interests, or the homeland (ADP 3-0). Threats faced by Army forces are, by nature, hybrid. They include individuals, groups of individuals, paramilitary or military forces, criminal elements, nation-states, or national alliances. In general, a threat can be categorized as an enemy or an adversary: z An enemy is a party identified as hostile against which the use of force is authorized (ADP 3-0). An enemy is also a combatant under the law of war. z An adversary is a party acknowledged as potentially hostile to a friendly party and against which the use of force may be envisaged (JP 3-0). Adversaries pursue interests that compete with those of the United States and are often called competitors. Army forces are organized, trained, and equipped primarily for large-scale combat operations against peer Peer threats generate tactical, operational, threats. Army units supporting combatant commanders and strategic challenges that may constitute (CCDRs) where no peer threat exists focus on other an existential threat to the United States and missions, but they can alter their priorities to support its allies. large-scale combat operations when necessary. Peer threats are adversaries or enemies with capabilities and capacity to oppose U.S. forces across multiple domains worldwide or in a specific region where they enjoy a position of relative advantage. Peer threats possess roughly equal combat power to U.S. forces in geographic proximity to a conflict area. Peer threats may also have a cultural affinity with specific regions, providing them relative advantages in the human and information dimensions. Peer threats employ strategies that capitalize on their advantages to achieve objectives. When these objectives are at odds with the interests of the United States and its allies, conflict becomes more likely. Peer threats prefer to achieve their goals without directly engaging U.S. forces in combat. They often employ information warfare in combination with conventional and irregular military capabilities to achieve their goals. They exploit friendly sensitivity to world opinion and attempt to exploit American domestic opinion 2-6 FM 3-0 01 October 2022  Generating and Applying Combat Power and sensitivity to friendly casualties. Peer threats believe they have a comparative advantage because of their willingness to endure greater hardships, casualties, and negative public opinion. They also believe their ability to pursue long-term goals is greater than that of the United States. Peer threats employ capabilities from and across multiple domains against Army forces, and they seek to exploit vulnerabilities in all strategic contexts. During conflict, peer threats seek to inflict significant damage across multiple domains in a short amount of time. They seek to delay friendly forces long enough to achieve their goals and end hostilities before friendly forces can decisively respond. THREAT METHODS Peer threats use various methods to render U.S. military power irrelevant whenever possible. Five broad peer threat methods, often used in combination during conventional or irregular conflicts, and below the threshold of conflict, include— z Information warfare. z Systems warfare. z Preclusion. z Isolation. z Sanctuary. Information Warfare In the context of the threat, information warfare refers to a threat’s orchestrated use of information activities (such as cyberspace operations, electronic warfare, and psychological operations) to achieve objectives. Operating under a different set of ethics and laws than the United States, and under the cloak of anonymity, peer threats conduct information warfare aggressively and continuously to influence populations and decision makers. They can also use information warfare to create destructive effects during competition and crisis. During armed conflict, peer threats use information warfare in conjunction with other methods to achieve strategic and operational objectives. Note. Threat forces use the term electronic warfare, which differs from U.S. doctrine’s use of electromagnetic warfare. Electronic warfare consists of the measures threats conduct to control or deny friendly use of the electromagnetic spectrum, while ensuring its use by the threat. For U.S. forces, electromagnetic warfare is military action involving the use of electromagnetic and directed energy to control the electromagnetic spectrum or to attack the enemy (JP 3-85). Threats seek to employ information warfare to attack or disrupt in depth, including within the continental United States, viewing it as a low-cost and low-risk activity. A cyberspace attack may disrupt U.S. infrastructure that impedes deployment of forces, or a disinformation campaign can reduce morale and the will to fight. In some situations, threats use proxies for information warfare to achieve policy aims without having to incur the risks associated with employing military forces or official government entities. Peer threats typically have fewer policy and legal restrictions than U.S. forces on how they employ information warfare, giving them an initial advantage. They exploit the nature of open societies while restricting their population’s access to information. They often obscure their activities to prevent detection or attribution. Peer threats are free to sow disinformation among U.S. and allied populations while at the same time strictly limiting access to and manipulating the information their own populations receive. They employ all available means to influence a wide range of audiences, including both civilian and military and domestic and international, in support of their goals. Information warfare is a means to exploit shared cultural norms, historical grievances, and a self-serving interpretation of international law to limit U.S. military options and degrade U.S. political will. Peer threats use diverse means to conduct information warfare, and these means may include— z Cyberspace operations. z Perception management. 01 October 2022 FM 3-0 2-7 Chapter 2 z Deception. z Electronic warfare. z Physical destruction. z Political warfare. z Legal warfare. z Proxies and non-state actors. Peer threats systematically and continuously combine all of these means to create specific effects within the human, information, and physical dimensions of an operational environment. Peer threats use misinformation, disinformation, propaganda, and information for effect to create doubt, confuse, deceive, and influence U.S. and partner decision makers, forces, and target audiences. They also use information warfare to destroy essential network-based capabilities, such as economic infrastructure, private and government communications, and electrical grids. This use of information warfare is not merely disruptive. It can result in the loss of immense resources and human life, depending on the scale and duration of the attack. (See FM 3-53 for a discussion of threat information categories.) Systems Warfare Systems warfare is the identification and isolation or destruction of critical subsystems or components to degrade or destroy an opponent’s overall system. Peer threats view the battlefield, their own instruments of power, and an opponent’s instruments of power as a collection of complex, dynamic, and integrated systems composed of subsystems and components. They use systems warfare to attack critical components of a friendly system while protecting their own system. Simple examples of attacking critical components are adversary use of electronic warfare to disable the links between unmanned aircraft system (UAS) controllers and the aircraft in a specific area, and the emplacement of layered integrated air defense systems from a position of sanctuary to prevent the integration of opposing airpower with ground operations. Peer threats believe that a qualitatively or quantitatively weaker force can defeat a superior force, if the weaker force can dictate the terms of combat. Peer threats believe that the systems warfare approach allows them to move away from the conventional approach to combat. Systems warfare makes it unnecessary to match an opponent system-for-system or capability-for-capability. Peer threats seek to locate the critical components of the opposing combat system, determine patterns of interaction and dependencies among components, and identify opportunities to exploit this connectivity. Systems warfare approaches work in concert with other approaches, and they manifest themselves at the tactical level in terms of integrated fires complexes characterized by surface-to-surface and surface-to- air systems enabled by long-range ISR capabilities. They generally represent one means by which adversaries achieve preclusion at the strategic and operational levels, and they are adversaries’ preferred means for destroying friendly forces at the tactical level. An example of systems warfare occurred in Ukraine in 2014. 2-8 FM 3-0 01 October 2022  Generating and Applying Combat Power Systems Warfare and Sanctuary: Eastern Ukraine, 2014 During the Russia-Ukraine conflict, an attack on Ukrainian forces demonstrated the lethality of the modern battlefield and the impact created by the threat’s use of sanctuary and systems warfare. In July 2014, the Armed Forces of Ukraine moved several mechanized brigades into a position near the Russian border to prevent the illegal movement of military equipment across the frontier to rebels in eastern Ukraine. Early on the morning of 11 July, soldiers at the position noticed a drone orbiting above them for some time. Not long after the drone disappeared, rockets fired from 9A52-4 Tornado multiple launch rocket systems located in Russian territory began landing on one of the brigades. Reporting indicated that the UAS was cued by other systems that located civilian cell phones in the assembly area. The barrage lasted four minutes. Rockets carrying a mixture of high explosive, cluster, and thermobaric munitions impacted the unit’s position. Cannon rounds followed the rockets with devastating effect. The Ukrainian units took heavy losses. One battalion was virtually destroyed, and others were rendered combat ineffective due to heavy losses in vehicles and personnel. Casualties quickly overwhelmed army and local medical facilities. In the days that followed, rocket and cannon strikes continued, disrupting the Ukrainian army’s ability to defend that region of eastern Ukraine. The lethality of the attacks was enabled by a sophisticated real-time targeting system that used inexpensive unmanned aircraft systems for ISR, target acquisition, and fire control. Rockets were likely fired from within a town in Russian territory, hampering potential Ukrainian military responses due to the sanctuary provided by both an international border and proximity to civilian noncombatants. Additionally, Russia extended its integrated air defense system, located within Russian territory, over the conflict zone in Ukraine. This action denied Ukraine’s ability to use its air power, which separated Ukraine’s air capability from its ground forces. Without air power for close air support and counter-UAS operations, the Ukrainian ground forces were left vulnerable to the sophisticated targeting systems used by Russian and pro-Russian forces. Over the following months and years, Ukraine military forces adapted. In 2022, Russia began an unprovoked conventional attack along multiple axes throughout Ukraine. Ukrainian forces responded effectively. They exercised a more disciplined and efficient use of the electromagnetic spectrum, complicating Russian detection efforts. Ukrainian forces also defended in more mobile, dispersed formations, providing fewer lucrative targets for Russian fires. Preclusion To preclude is to keep something from happening by taking action in advance. Peer threats use a wide variety of actions, activities, and capabilities to preclude a friendly force’s ability to shape an operational environment and mass and sustain combat power. Antiaccess (A2) and area denial (AD) are two strategic and operational approaches to preclusion. Antiaccess is an action, activity, or capability, usually long-range, designed to prevent an enemy force from entering an operational area (JP 3-0). For example, A2 activities prevent or deny forces the ability to project and sustain forces into a desired area. The employment of A2 capabilities against Army forces begins in the continental United States and extends throughout the strategic support area into a theater. Peer threats have the means to disrupt the United States’ force projection capability at home station. These means include ballistic missiles; cruise missiles; and space, cyberspace, and information warfare capabilities. 01 October 2022 FM 3-0 2-9 Chapter 2 Area denial is an action, activity, or capability, usually short-range, designed to limit an enemy force’s freedom of action within an operational area (JP 3-0). Usually adversaries do not design area denial to keep friendly forces out, but rather to limit their freedom of action and ability to accomplish their mission within an operational area. Threat forces pursue AD using long-range fires, integrated air defense systems, electronic warfare, CBRN, manmade obstacles, and conventional ground maneuver forces. Figure 2-1 and figure 2-2 depict employment of A2 and AD approaches in different types of theaters. For illustration purposes, A2 and AD reach are tied to specific capabilities. However, adversary forces can use different actions, activities, or capabilities in an A2 or AD approach. Figure 2-1. Notional U.S. European Command preclusion example 2-10 FM 3-0 01 October 2022  Generating and Applying Combat Power Figure 2-2. Notional U.S. Indo-Pacific Command preclusion example Isolation Isolation is the containment of a force so that it cannot accomplish its mission. Peer threats will attempt to isolate U.S. forces in several ways. Some examples include— z Attacking political bonds with allies and partners. z Preventing or limiting communications to and in an AO. z Interdicting or severing lines of communication to block support or reinforcement of forward-positioned units. z Deceiving friendly forces about the current situation and their role in the operational environment. z Deceiving the public about the current situation to reduce its support of friendly operations that counter threat goals. z Exploiting inadequate friendly understanding of an operational environment or cultural affinity in an area or region. z Blocking support or reinforcement of forward-positioned units through direct and indirect fires. z Using economic coercion. z Preventing friendly access and overflight. 01 October 2022 FM 3-0 2-11 Chapter 2 During competition, peer threats may attempt to isolate friendly forces using disinformation campaigns and the threat of aggression. During crisis, peer threats seek to isolate U.S. forward-positioned forces and prevent their support from the United States or elsewhere in theater. During armed conflict, enemy forces identify isolated friendly forces using a variety of capabilities and rapidly attempt to destroy them through long-range, massed, and precision fires. Sanctuary Sanctuary is the positioning of threat forces beyond the reach of friendly forces. It is a form of protection derived by some combination of political, legal, and physical boundaries that restricts freedom of action by a friendly force commander. Peer threats will use any means necessary, including sanctuary, to protect key capabilities from destruction, particularly by air and missile capabilities. Peer threats will also protect their key interests, whether these interests reside in their homeland or in another country. To create a sanctuary that protects key interests, adversaries employ combinations of both physical and nonphysical means to protect key interests, including— z International borders. z Complex terrain. z Hiding among noncombatants and culturally sensitive structures. z Counterprecision techniques, including camouflage, concealment, and deception. z Countermeasures, including decoys, hardened and buried facilities, integrated air defense systems, and long-range fires. z Information warfare. z Threatening attacks against the U.S. homeland, possibly using including weapons of mass destruction. z International law, treaties, and treaty agreements. z Internal population information control (by denying the internet or jamming external radio and television). Most means of sanctuary cannot protect an entire enemy force for an extended time. Therefore, a threat will seek to protect selected elements of its forces for enough time to gain the freedom of action necessary to pursue its strategic or diplomatic goals. Threat forces seek to protect their conventional forces, advanced aircraft, and extended-range fires systems. Many peer threats invest in long-range rocket and missile systems, such as the Russian Smerch 9A52 and Chinese PHL-03, capable of counterfire at extreme ranges to allow sanctuary behind international borders. Improved air defense systems, including counter ballistic missile systems, often provide protection for these advanced fires capabilities. UNIFIED ACTION AND ARMY FORCES [S]eparate ground, sea, and air warfare is gone forever. If ever again we should be involved in war, we will fight it in all elements, with all services, as one single concentrated effort. President Dwight D. Eisenhower To counter threats and protect national interests worldwide, the Armed Forces of the United States operate as a joint force in unified action. Unified action is the synchronization, coordination, and/or integration of the activities of governmental and nongovernmental entities with military operations to achieve unity of effort (JP 1, Volume 1). Unity of effort is coordination and cooperation toward common objectives, even if the participants are not necessarily part of the same command or organization, which is the product of successful unified action (JP 1, Volume 2). Army forces, as part of unified action, conduct operations in support of the joint force, with multinational allies and partners, and in coordination with other agencies and organizations. The Army’s contribution to unified action is multidomain operations which seek to employ all available capabilities in unexpected combinations that create and exploit relative advantages. Leaders must be capable of employing all unified action partners to the greatest extent possible, including conventional forces, special operations forces, allies, partner-nation forces, territorial defense forces, and any other organization or individual whose efforts can legally be harnessed to help achieve objectives. 2-12 FM 3-0 01 October 2022  Generating and Applying Combat Power JOINT OPERATIONS AND ACTIVITIES Single Services may perform tasks and missions to support Department of Defense (DOD) objectives. However, the DOD primarily employs two or more Services (from two military departments) in a single operation from, in, and across multiple domains, particularly in combat, through joint operations. Joint operations are military actions conducted by joint forces and those Service forces employed in specified command relationships with each other, which, of themselves, do not establish joint forces (JP 3-0). A joint force is a force composed of elements, assigned or attached, of two or more military departments operating under a single joint force commander (JP 3-0). Joint operations exploit the advantages of interdependent Service capabilities in multiple domains through unified action. Joint planning integrates military power with other instruments of national power (including diplomatic, economic, and informational) to achieve a desired military end state. The end state is the set of required conditions that defines achievement of the commander’s objectives (JP 3-0). Joint planning connects the strategic end state to the joint force commander’s (JFC’s) campaign design and ultimately to tactical missions. JFCs use campaigns and major operations to translate their operational-level actions into strategic results. The joint force is organized, trained, and equipped for sustained large-scale combat anywhere in the world. The capabilities to conduct large-scale combat operations enable a wide variety of other operations and activities. In particular, opportunities exist prior to large-scale combat to shape an operational environment to prevent, or at least mitigate, the effects of war. Characterizing the employment of military capabilities (including people, organizations, and equipment) as one or another type of military operation has several benefits. For example, the Army can develop publications that describe the nature, tasks, and tactics associated with specific types of diverse operations, such as counterinsurgency and peace operations. Doctrine categorizes joint operations and activities by their focus, as shown in figure 2-3. In some cases, the title covers a variety of missions, tasks, and activities. Many activities are accomplished by Army forces and do not constitute joint operations, such as tasks associated with security cooperation. Nonetheless, most of these occur under a joint “umbrella,” because they contribute to achievement of CCDRs’ campaign objectives. Figure 2-3. Examples of operations and activities MULTINATIONAL OPERATIONS Multinational operations is a collective term to describe military actions conducted by forces of two or more nations, usually undertaken within the structure of a coalition or alliance (JP 3-16). While each nation has its own interests and often participates within the limitations of national caveats, all nations bring value to an operation. Each nation’s force has unique capabilities, and each usually contributes to an operation’s legitimacy in terms of international or local acceptability. Army forces should anticipate that most operations will be multinational and plan accordingly. (See FM 3-16 for more information on multinational operations.) 01 October 2022 FM 3-0 2-13 Chapter 2 Multinational operations present challenges and demands. These include culture and language issues, unresolved policy issues, technical and procedural interoperability challenges, national caveats on the use of respective forces, the authorities required for sharing of information and intelligence, and rules of engagement. Commanders analyze the particular requirements of a mission in the context of friendly force capabilities to exploit the multinational force’s advantages and compensate for its limitations. Establishing effective liaison with multinational partners through embedded teams, collaborative systems, and leader contact is critical to establishing a common operational picture (COP) and maintaining situational understanding. Multinational operations also present many opportunities. Having multinational forces as part of an operation provides international legitimacy that helps isolate adversary or enemy forces. They may provide cultural awareness, foreign language skills, and affinities with populations that help with understanding the environment, conducting stability tasks, and transitioning to legitimate authorities. Allies and partners often operate with different authorities to employ key capabilities in space, cyberspace, and the information dimension of an operational environment. Lastly, multinational allies and partners bring additional forces to an operation, and they often possess capabilities U.S. Army forces may lack. INTERAGENCY COORDINATION AND INTERORGANIZATIONAL COOPERATION Interagency coordination is a key part of unified action. Interagency coordination is the planning and synchronization of efforts that occur between elements of Department of Defense and participating United States Government departments and agencies (JP 3-0). Army forces conduct and participate in interagency coordination using established liaison, personal engagement, and planning processes. Unified action may require interorganizational cooperation to build the capacity of unified action partners. Interorganizational cooperation is the interaction that occurs among elements of the Department of Defense; participating United States Government departments and agencies; state, territorial, local, and tribal agencies; foreign military forces and government agencies; international organizations; nongovernmental organizations; and the private sector (JP 3-08). Interorganizational cooperation includes civil-military integration. (See FM 3-57 for more information on civil-military integration.) CONVENTIONAL AND SPECIAL OPERATIONS FORCES INTEGRATION Army forces integrate conventional and special operations forces to create complementary and reinforcing effects during operations. The mission and operational environment drive the command and support relationships between conventional and special operations forces during an operation. Regardless of C2 and support arrangements, both types of forces integrate and synchronize operations to increase effectiveness, promote interdependence, provide mutual support, limit the redundant use of resources, and reduce the risk of fratricide. During large-scale combat, conventional forces contribute mass across all warfighting functions required to defeat enemy forces. Special operations forces complement conventional forces by performing their core activities: z Civil affairs operations. z Countering weapons of mass destruction. z Counterinsurgency. z Counterterrorism. z Direct action. z Foreign humanitarian assistance. z Foreign internal defense. z Hostage rescue and recovery. z Military information support operations. z Security force assistance z Special reconnaissance. z Unconventional warfare. 2-14 FM 3-0 01 October 2022  Generating and Applying Combat Power z SOF contributions during deep and extended deep operations are often critical to setting conditions for conventional close and rear operations. z SOF contributions during deep and extended deep operations are often critical to setting conditions for conventional close and rear operations. Because operations often include conventional and irregular forces from multinational partners, commanders must consider how they will maintain unity of effort without direct command authority. Security force assistance brigades (SFABs) provide the ability to partner with conventional allies and partners. Special operations forces enhance unity of effort by integrating irregular forces through security force assistance, foreign internal defense, and unconventional warfare. (See ATP 3-96.1 for more information on security force assistance brigades. See FM 6-05 for more information on integrating conventional forces and special operations forces.) JOINT INTERDEPENDENCE Joint interdependence is the purposeful reliance by one Service on another Service’s capabilities to maximize complementary and reinforcing effects of both. The degree of interdependence varies with specific circumstances. The Army depends on the other Services for strategic and operational mobility, joint fires, and other key enabling capabilities. The Army supports the other Services, combatant commands, and unified action partners with ground-based indirect fires and air and missile defense (AMD), defensive cyberspace operations, electromagnetic warfare, communications, intelligence, rotary-wing aircraft, logistics, and engineering. The Army’s ability to set and sustain a theater of operations is essential to allowing the joint force freedom of action. The Army establishes, maintains, and defends vital infrastructure. It also provides the JFC with unique capabilities, such as port and airfield opening, logistics, CBRN defense, and reception, staging, onward movement, and integration of forces (RSOI). DOMAIN INTERDEPENDENCE The Army provides forces and capabilities from all domains to the joint force. Army forces employ joint capabilities from all domains to complement and reinforce their own capabilities. Understanding domain interdependences helps leaders better mitigate friendly vulnerabilities while creating and exploiting relative advantages. Successful operations in an environment where the enemy can contest every domain requires continuous joint integration down to the lowest tactical echelons. Air Land capabilities enable air operations in multiple ways. Some of these ways include— z Fixing enemy ground forces for destruction from the air. z Providing air-delivered fires through rotary-wing and UAS platforms. z Controlling, securing, and defending airports and airfields. z Securing land-based C2 nodes for air operations. z Destroying enemy surface-to-air systems. z Employing surface-to-air fires. z Integrating all-source intelligence to identify threats to friendly air capabilities. z Providing logistics support to other Service components. Air capabilities enable land operations in multiple ways. Some of these ways include— z Providing air-to-ground fires. z Providing offensive and defensive depth through air interdiction and strategic attack. z Protecting ground forces from air attack. z Employing airborne platforms for information collection. z Providing aerial movement of personnel, equipment, and supplies. z Employing airborne electromagnetic warfare platforms. 01 October 2022 FM 3-0 2-15 Chapter 2 Space Land capabilities enable space operations in multiple ways. Some of these ways include— z Destroying enemy space ground stations, ground links, and launch sites with surface-to-surface fires. z Securing ground links and launch sites. z Securing bases and C2 nodes for units controlling space capabilities. z Securing bases and C2 nodes from which to launch attacks against enemy space capabilities. Space capabilities enable land operations in multiple ways. Some of these ways include— z Enabling geolocation and timing-dependent technology, including global positioning systems and precise and accurate fires. z Enabling a global C2 network through satellite communications. z Enhancing situational understanding by providing meteorological, oceanographic, and space environmental factors and detailed imagery of land areas and enemy dispositions on land. z Deceiving, disrupting, degrading, denying, or destroying enemy space systems. z Conducting navigation warfare to disrupt enemy use of positioning, navigation, and timing-enabled devices. z Enabling theater missile warning and other warning intelligence. Cyberspace Land capabilities enable cyberspace operations in multiple ways. These include— z Securing critical cyberspace infrastructure including data storage facilities, wired network transport, ground-based repeaters, and terminals. z Conducting information activities that protect and defend joint communications networks and data. z Conducting physical attacks against enemy cyberspace-based capabilities and infrastructure on land. z Defeating enemy forces collecting information through cyberspace. Cyberspace capabilities enable land operations in multiple ways. Some of these ways include— z Enabling secure global communications and a shared COP. z Supporting decision making and logistics. z Facilitating high-volume data storage and knowledge management. z Networking sensors and fires platforms. z Attacking enemy networks including C2, integrated air defense systems, and integrated long-range fires systems. z Enabling rapid communication to audiences through social media and other applications. z Enabling targeted influence operations. Maritime Land capabilities enable maritime operations in multiple ways. Some of these ways include— z Attacking land-based threats to maritime capabilities, including enemy air bases, surface-to-surface fires, and sensors. z Protecting ports and defending land areas that control maritime choke points. z Denying maritime areas with surface-to-surface fires and surface-to-air fires. z Integrating joint all-source intelligence to identify threats to maritime capabilities. z Providing directed logistics support to maritime oriented forces operating from land. Maritime capabilities enable land operations in multiple ways. Some of these ways include— 2-16 FM 3-0 01 October 2022  Generating and Applying Combat Power z Increasing operational reach and lethality through long-range fires systems and information collection. z Providing access to otherwise inaccessible land areas. z Providing and protecting transportation of units, equipment, and supplies on a large scale, over strategic distances. z Integrating with all-source intelligence. z Preventing enemy forces from using sea lines of communications and supply routes. z Attacking enemy maritime threats to land forces. ARMY FORCE POSTURE The Army postures forces in a way that balances the need for sustainable readiness with the Although U.S. Army forces have the ability to need for responsiveness. Forward-stationed and respond rapidly to regional and global crisis, the rotational forces provide CCDRs with support to ability to build and project large-scale combat operations during competition and rapid response power can take months. during crisis. These forces are usually small in number and may be vulnerable if the situation rapidly escalates to armed conflict. Forces based in strategic support areas allow for unit training and a sustainable readiness cycle. These forces are part of the Army’s global response capability, or they are in support of regional contingency plans that typically have deployment timelines that occur over months. Army Reserve Components support a wide variety of domestic and global Army operations. Although they constitute about half of the Army’s organized units, they provide about 80 percent of the Army’s sustainment units, over 70 percent of maneuver support units, a fourth of the Army’s mobilization base expansion capability, and most of its civil affairs capacity. The Army Reserve Components are also the Army’s major source of trained individual Soldiers for strengthening headquarters and filling vacancies in the Regular Army during a crisis. Reserve Components provide a key resource for reconstitution operations during armed conflict. It is critical for planners to understand that Reserve Components forces have mobilization requirements that take time and typically have deployment time limits that must factor into force management and contingency plans. (See ADP 1 for more information on Army reserve forces. See Chapter 6 for more information on reconstitution. See Chapter 5 for information on reserve mobilization.) ARMY ECHELONS The Army operates through the use of echelons to ensure manageable spans of control for leaders. Echelons generally correspond to a particular level of warfare, but they may contribute to two or more levels depending on the situation. Generally, higher echelons (for example, divisions and higher) have greater experience in their command teams and staffs. They have the expertise and perspective to coordinate large-scale operations and complex or politically sensitive tasks. They retain control of scarce resources so that they can employ them at the right time and place. This often includes joint air, space, maritime, and cyberspace capabilities. Higher echelons generally employ these critical capabilities to set conditions for lower echelon success and to weight the main effort appropriately. Higher echelons maneuver subordinate formations and use capabilities from all domains to shape the environment and create and exploit relative advantages. Generally speaking, the joint force command degrades enemy strategic capabilities to enable forcible entry and sustained operations. The land component command sets the theater, defeats enemy long- and mid-range fires, provides operational-level sustainment, and apportions joint capabilities to corps. Corps, operating as tactical formations, defeat enemy mid-range fires, employ joint capabilities to set conditions for divisions to maneuver, and maintain the tempo of operations through sustainment and other rear operations. Divisions defeat enemy short-range fires, mass effects on enemy forward echelons, and synchronize BCT maneuver in close combat with enemy forces. BCTs conduct close operations to defeat and destroy enemy forces during battles and engagements. Generally, subordinate echelons (for example, brigades and lower) contribute to the overall mission by executing tasks and fulfilling the purpose assigned to their unit. They provide awareness to the higher 01 October 2022 FM 3-0 2-17 Chapter 2 echelon with their proximity to the current situation at the point of execution. While higher echelons provide broad perspective, subordinate echelons provide tactical fidelity. Combining the higher echelon perspective with the perspectives of subordinates creates the shared situational understanding that fosters disciplined initiative. Shared situational understanding does not require all leaders to agree. Instead, leaders use differences of opinion to frame the problem, assess operations, understand risk, and guide information collection. The focus of echelons changes across strategic contexts as do their responsibilities for integrating multidomain capabilities into operations. Their broad roles are listed in paragraphs 2-79 through 2-94. (See Chapters 4, 5, and 6 for descriptions of each strategic context and more detailed information on echelon roles and responsibilities.) Theater Army The theater army’s mission is the most diverse and complex of any Army echelon. The theater army headquarters is tailored to a specific CCDR with the ability to conduct both operational and administrative C2 over Army forces theater wide. It provides enabling capabilities appropriate to theater conditions, such as theater intelligence, theater sustainment, theater signal, theater fires, theater information activities, civil affairs, engineer, and theater medical. In theaters without assigned field armies, corps, or divisions, the theater army assumes direct responsibility across warfighting functions for its tactical commands. The theater army is the Army Service component command to a geographic combatant command. The seven functions performed as the Army Service component command are— z Execute the CCDR’s daily operational requirements. z Provide administrative control (ADCON) of Army forces. z Set and maintain the theater. z Set and support operational areas. z Exercise C2 of Army forces in the theater. z Perform joint roles of limited scope, scale, and duration. z Plan and coordinate for the consolidation of gains in support of joint operations. (See FM 3-94 and ATP 3-93 for additional information on theater army administrative and operational requirements.) Field Army A field army is constituted to meet specific requirements. A field army may consist of a headquarters battalion with subordinate companies and special troops, a variable number of attached corps, an attached expeditionary sustainment command, a variable number of divisions normally attached to corps, and other attached functional and multifunctional brigades. When required, a field army is an operational headquarters that provides C2 over multiple corps. During operations, forces are assigned or attached to the field army. Although it may employ subordinate units during operations, these units are provided by external Army, joint, and multinational sources based on the situation and the field army’s role and mission. When constituted, a field army is tailored to mission requirements and designed to perform operational ARFOR tasks; it is the Army component to the JFC to which it is assigned. The field army provides additional operational capacity to a CCDR facing peer adversaries in its AOR. The field army is tailored based on the capabilities of the peer adversary. As the adversary’s capabilities change, so do those of the field army. When constituted, the field army provides Army, joint, and multinational forces with a headquarters capable of performing in a variety of ways across the range of military operations. Field armies are most likely to be employed in theaters where peer adversaries have the capability of conducting large-scale combat. These regions include the U.S. European Command and U.S. Indo-Pacific Command. 2-18 FM 3-0 01 October 2022  Generating and Applying Combat Power Corps The corps is the most versatile echelon above brigade due to its ability to operate at both the tactical and operational levels. While it is organized, staffed, trained, and equipped to fight as a tactical formation, the corps may be called upon to become a joint and multinational headquarters for conducting operations. When operating as the senior Army headquarters under a joint task force (JTF), the corps will serve as the ARFOR. The corps can also serve as the coalition forces land component commander (CFLCC) when properly augmented with joint and multinational personnel. If the corps is uncommitted to specific CCDR requirements, it focuses on building and sustaining readiness to prevail in large-scale combat operations. The roles of the corps include acting as the— z Senior Army tactical formation in large-scale combat, commanding two to five Army divisions together with supporting brigades and commands. z ARFOR (with augmentation) within a joint force for campaigns and major operations when a field army is not present. z JTF headquarters (with significant augmentation) for crisis response and limited contingency operations. z CFLCC (with significant augmentation) commanding Army, Marine Corps, and multinational divisions together with supporting brigades and commands when a field army is not present. During large-scale combat operations, a corps headquarters normally functions as a tactical headquarters under a joint or multinational land component. The corps is the echelon best positioned and resourced to achieve convergence with Army and joint capabilities. (See FM 3-94 and ATP 3-92 for more information about Army corps.) Division The division is the Army’s principal tactical warfighting formation during large-scale combat operations. Its primary role is to serve as a tactical headquarters commanding brigades. A division conducts operations in an AO assigned by its higher headquarters—normally a corps. It task-organizes its subordinate forces according to the mission variables to accomplish its mission. A division typically commands between two and five BCTs, a mix of functional and multifunctional brigades, and a variety of smaller enabling units. The division is typically the lowest tactical echelon that employs capabilities from multiple domains to achieve convergence during large-scale combat operations. Winning battles and engagements remains the division’s primary purpose. During limited contingencies, it can organize itself to serve in multiple roles. The roles of the division include acting as a— z Tactical headquarters. z ARFOR headquarters (with significant augmentation). z CFLCC (with significant augmentation). z JTF headquarters (with significant augmentation). (See FM 3-94 and ATP 3-91 for more information about Army divisions.) Brigade Combat Teams A BCT is the Army’s primary combined arms, close-combat maneuver force. BCTs maneuver against, close with, and destroy enemy forces. BCTs seize and retain key terrain, exert constant pressure, and break the enemy’s will to fight. They are the principal ground maneuver units of a division or a JTF. Divisions seek to employ BCTs in mutually supporting ways to the greatest extent possible. However, BCTs must be capable of fighting isolated from higher echelon headquarters and adjacent units during periods of degraded communication and when operations are widely distributed. There are three types of BCT: the infantry BCT, the armored BCT, and the Stryker BCT. Depending on the tactical situation, these three types of organizations are augmented with additional Army and joint capabilities to help them accomplish their missions. (See FM 3-96 for more information on Army BCTs.) 01 October 2022 FM 3-0 2-19 Chapter 2 Multifunctional and Functional Brigades Theater armies, corps, and divisions are task-organized with an assortment of multifunctional and functional brigades to support their operations. These brigades add capabilities such as intelligence, attack and reconnaissance aviation, fires, protection, contracting support, or sustainment. The theater army may tailor subordinate corps and divisions with combinations of multifunctional brigades. Multifunctional brigades provide a variety of functions in support of operations. Normally, they are attached to a corps or division, but they may be under the command of a joint or multinational headquarters. Multifunctional brigades include combat aviation brigades, field artillery brigades, sustainment brigades, and maneuver enhancement brigades. A functional brigade provides a single function or capability. These brigades can provide support to a theater, corps, or division, depending on how each is tailored. Functional brigade organization varies extensively. Examples of functional brigades include SFABs, air defense artillery (ADA) brigades, civil affairs brigades, expeditionary military intelligence brigades, and engineer brigades. 2-20 FM 3-0 01 October 2022