Industrialization Spreads PDF

Industrialization Spreads C MAINjfU ~ 111),ifivjltfiitjteYfflfW EMPIRE BUILDING The The Industrial Revolution set the stock industrialization that began in stage for the growth of modern corporation...

Industrialization Spreads C MAINjfU ~ 111),ifivjltfiitjteYfflfW EMPIRE BUILDING The The Industrial Revolution set the stock industrialization that began in stage for the growth of modern corporation Great Britain spread to other cities and a global economy. parts of the world. SETTING THE STAGE Great Britain's favorable geography and its finan- cial systems, political stability, and natural resources sparked industrialization. British merchants built the world's first factories. When these factories prospered, more laborsaving machines and factories were built. Eventually, the Industrial Revolution that had begun in Britain spread both to the United States and to continental Europe. Countries that had conditions similar to those in Britain were ripe for industrialization. Industrial Development in the United States The United States possessed the same resources that allowed Britain to mecha- nize its industries. America had fast-flowing rivers, rich deposits of coal and iron ore, and a supply of laborers made up of farm workers and immigrants. ijr;RMttW~*t+ 111 Use the graphic organizer During the War of 1812, Britain blockaded the United States, trying to keep it online to take notes on industrialization in the from engaging in international trade. This blockade forced the young country to United States and in use its own resources to develop independent industries. Those industries would Europe. manufacture the goods the United States could no longer import. Industrialization in the United States As in Britain, industrialization in the United States began in the textile industry. Eager to keep the secrets of industri- ~ Teenage mill alization to itself, Britain had forbidden engineers, mechanics, and toolmakers to gi~s at a Georgia leave the country. In I 789, however, a young British mill worker named Samuel cotton mill Slater emigrated to the United States. There, Slater built a spinning machine from memory and a partial design. The fol- lowing year, Moses Brown opened the first factory in the United States to house Slater's machines in Pawtucket, Rhode Island. But the Pawtucket factory mass-produced only one part of finished cloth, the thread. In 1813, Francis Cabot Lowell of Boston and four other investors revolutionized the American textile industry. They mechanized every stage in the manufacture of cloth. Their weaving factory in Waltham, Massachusetts, earned them enough money to fund a larger The Industrial Revolution 295  The Growth of Railroads in the United States Railroad System, 1840 Railroad System, 1890 l GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Maps........-...............-"-"'-=----I 1. Region In what part of the country were the first railroads built? By 1890, what other part of the country was densely covered by railroad tracks? 2. Movement In what direction did the railroads help people move across the country? operation in another Massachusetts town. When Lowell died, the remaining part- ners named the town after him. By the late 1820s, Lowell, Massachusetts, had become a booming manufacturing center and a model for other such towns. Thousands of young single women flocked from their rural homes to work as mill girls in factory towns. There, they could make higher wages and have some independence. However, to ensure proper behavior, they were watched closely inside and outside the factory by their employers. The mill girls toiled more than 12 hours a day, 6 days a week, for decent wages. For some, the mill job was an alternative to being a servant and was often the only other job open to them: PRIMARY SOURCE -e) Country girls were naturally independent, and the feeling that at this new work the few hours they had of everyday leisure were entirely their own was a satisfaction to them. Sources They preferred it to going out as "hired help." It was like a young man's pleasure in (6) Wnydid liq entering upon business for himself. Girls had never tried that experiment before, and Larcom think nj they liked it work benefited young womeo1 LUCY LARCOM, A New England Girlhood Textiles led the way, but clothing manufacture and shoemaking also underwent mechanization. Especially in the Northeast, skilled workers and farmers had for- merly worked at home. Now they labored in factories in towns and cities such as Waltham, Lowell, and Lawrence, Massachusetts. Later Expansion of U.S. Industry The Northeast experienced much industrial growth in the early 1800s. Nonetheless, the United States remained primarily agri- cultural until the Civil War ended in 1865. During the last third of the 1800s, the country experienced a technological boom. As in Britain, a number of causes con- tributed to this boom. These included a wealth of natural resources, among them oil, coal, and iron; a burst of inventions, such as the electric light bulb and the telephone; and a swelling urban population that consumed the new manufactured goods. Also, as in Britain, railroads played a major role in America's industrialization. Cities like Chicago and Minneapolis expanded rapidly during the late 1800s. This 296 Chapter 9 was due to their location along the nation's expanding railroad lines. Chicago's stockyards and Minneapolis's grain industries prospered by selling products to the rest of the country. Indeed, the railroads themselves proved to be a profitable busi- ness. By the end of the 1800s, a limited number of large, powerful companies con- trolled more than two-thirds of the nation's railroad tracks. Businesses of all kinds began to merge as the railroads had. Smaller companies joined together to form a larger one. The Rise of Corporations Building large businesses like railroads required a great deal of money. To raise the money, entrepreneurs sold shares of stock, or certain rights of ownership. Thus people who bought stock became part owners of these businesses, which were called corporations. A corporation is a business owned by stockholders who share in its profits but are not personally responsible for its debts. Corporations were able to raise the large amounts of capital needed to invest in industrial equipment. In the late 1800s, large corporations such as Standard Oil (founded by John D. Rockefeller) and the Carnegie Steel Company (founded by Andrew Carnegie) sprang up. They sought to control every aspect of their own industries in order to make big profits. Big business- the giant corporations that controlled entire indus- tries- also made big profits by reducing the cost of producing goods. In the United States as elsewhere, workers earned low wages for laboring long hours, while stockholders earned high profits and corporate leaders made fortunes. Continental Europe Industrializes European businesses yearned to adopt the "British miracle," the result of Britain's profitable new methods of manufacturing goods. But the troubles sparked by the.., Danish French Revolution and the Napoleonic wars between 1789 and 1815 had halted workers labor trade, interrupted communication, and caused inflation in some parts of the conti- in a steel mill in this 1885 nent. European countries watched the gap widen between themselves and Britain. painting by Peter Even so, industrialization eventually reached continental Europe. Severin Kroyer.  ~ - --- ------ Beginnings in Belgium Belgium led Europe in adopting Global Impact ~ Britain 's new technology. It bad rich deposits of iron ore ~ - · - - --------~------ - and coal as well as fine waterways for transportation. As in the United States, British skilled workers played a key role in industrializing Belgium. Samuel Slater had smuggled the design of a spinning machine to the United States. Much like him, a Lancashire carpenter named William Cockerill illegally made his way to Belgium in 1799. He carried secret plans for building spin- Industrialization in Japan ning machinery. His son John eventually built an enonnous Wrth the beginning of the Meiji industrial enterprise in eastern Belgium. It produced a vari- era in Japan in 1868, the central ety of mechanical equipment, including steam engines and government began an ambitious railway locomotives. Carrying the latest British advances, program to transform the country more British workers came to work with Cockerill. Several into an industrialized state. It financed textile mills, coal mines, then founded their own companies in Europe. shipyards, and cement and other Germany Industrializes Germany was politically divided factories. It also a_sked.private · in the early 1800s. Economic isolation and scattered companies to invest -in industry.· resources hampered countrywide industrialization. Instead,. · Some companies had been iri·· -business-since the 16005. Buf new pockets of industrialization appeared, as in the coal-rich companies sprang up foo. -Among. Ruhr Valley of west central Germany. Beginning around them-was ·the Mitsubishi.company, I 835, Germany began to copy the British model. Germany founded in 1870 and still in business. imported British equipment and engineers. German The industrializing of Japan manufacturers also sent their children to England to learn produced sustained_economic growth for the country. But ·it also industrial management. led to strengthening the military_and Most important, Germany built railroads that linked its ization in Gem"i'\' to Japanese imperialism in Asia. growing manufacturing cities, such as Frankfurt, with the Ruhr Valley's coal and iron ore deposits. In 1858, a German economist wrote, "Railroads and machine shops, coal mines and iron foundries, spinneries and rolling mills seem to spring up out of the ground, and smokestacks sprout from the earth like mushrooms." Germany's economic strength spurred its ability to develop as a military power. By the late 1800s, a uni- fied, imperial Germany had become both an industrial and a military giant. Expansion Elsewhere in Europe In the rest of Europe, as in Germany, industn- alization during the early 1800s proceeded by region rather than by country. Even in countries where agriculture dominated, pockets of industrialization arose. For example, Bohemia developed a spinning industry. Spain's Catalonia processed more cotton than Belgium. Northern Italy mechanized its textile production, spe- cializing in silk spinning. Serf labor ran factories in regions around Moscow and St. Petersburg. In France, sustained industrial growth occurred after 1830. French industrial- ization was more measured and controlled than in other countries because the agricultural economy remained strong. As a result, France avoided the great social and economic problems caused by industrialization. A thriving national market for new French products was created after 1850, when the government began rail- road construction. For a variety of reasons, many European countries did not industrialize. In some nations, the social structure delayed the adoption of new methods of production. The accidents of geography held back others. In Austria-Hungary and Spain, trans- portation posed great obstacles. Austria-Hungary's mountains defeated railroad builders. Spain lacked both good roads and waterways for canals. 298 Chapter 9  ,-.=;;:: The Impact of Industrialization rt~.. ~·- M. r T~e Industrial Revol_u~ion shifted the world balance of power. It mcreased competition between industrialized nations and poverty in less-developed nations. Rise of Global Inequality Industrialization widened the wealth gap between industrialized and nonindustrialized coun- tries, even while it strengthened their economic ties. To keep factories running and workers fed, industrialized countries required a steady supply of raw materials from less-developed lands. In turn, industrialized countries viewed poor countries as markets for their manufactured products. Britain led in exploiting its overseas colonies for resources and markets. Soon other European countries, the United.a. The Crystal States, Russia, and Japan followed Britain's lead, seizing colonies for their eco- Palace Exposition nomic resources. Imperialism, the policy of extending one country's rule over in London in 1851 many other lands, gave even more power and wealth to these already wealthy (shown above) celebrated the nations. Imperialism was born out of the cycle of industrialization, the need for "works of industry Cllrifying resources to supply the factories of Europe, and the development of new markets of all nations.# 0 Why did impe- around the world. (See Chapter 11.) rialism grow out of Transformation of Society Between 1700 and 1900, revolutions in agriculture, industrialization? production, transportation, and communication changed the lives of people in Western Europe and the United States. Industrialization gave Europe tremendous economic power. In contrast, the economies of Asia and Africa were still based on agriculture and small workshops. Industrialization revolutionized every aspect of society, from daily life to life expectancy. Despite the hardships early urban work- ers suffered, population, health, and wealth eventually rose dramatically in all industrialized countries. The development of a middle class created great opportu- nities for education and democratic participation. Greater democratic participation, in turn, fueled a powerful movement for social reform. TERMS Ir NAMES 1. For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance. ' stock corporation USINC YOUR NOTES MAIN IDEAS CRITICAL THINKING & WRITING 2. Which development had the 3. What early industries 6. RECOGNIZING BIAS Go back to the quote from Lucy rnost impact in the United mechanized in the United Larcom on page 296. Do you think her feelings.about S!ates,· working in the mill are typical? Why or why not? · in continental Europe? States? 4. Why did Belgium l~a~ E~rope 7. MAKING INFERENCES Why was Britain unable to keep in adopting industnahzat1on? industrial secrets away from other nations? s. How did the Industrial 8. FORMING AND SUPPORTING OPINIONS What was the Revolution shift the world most significant effect of the Industrial Revolution? ! balance of power? I 9. WRmNG ACTMTY EMPIRE BUILDING! Draw a political cartoon that could have been used by the British govern- I ment to show their sense of their own superiority over nonindustrialized nations that they planned to colonize. I, i if·l;i;i'9id CREATING A DATABASE 1 ~se the Internet to research the economy of a less-developed nation. INTERNET KEYWORD n either Asia, Africa, or South America. Create a database of economic country profiles statistics for that country. The Industrial Revolution 299  Reforming the Industrial World Many modern social welfare laissez faire Karl Marx ECONOMICS The Industrial Revolution led to economic, programs developed during this Adam Smith communism social, and political reforms. period of reform. capitalism union utilitarianism strike socialism SETTING THE STAGE In industrialized countries in the 19th century, the Industrial Revolution opened a wide gap between the rich and the poor. Business leaders believed that governments should stay out of business and economic affairs. Reformers, however, felt that governments needed to play an active role to improve conditions for the poor. Workers also demanded more rights and pro- tection. They formed labor unions to increase their influence. The Philosophers of Industrialization ;;NG ;;;r l flilliJ~-;n1~~u~~-~~ Use the graphic organizer The term laissez faire (LEHS ay-FAIR) refers to the economic policy of letting owners of industry and business set working conditions without interference. This policy favors a free market unregulated by the government. The term is online to take notes on French for "let do," and by extension, "let people do as they please." the characteristics of capitalism and socialism. Laissez-faire Economics Laissez-faire economics stemmed from French eco- nomic philosophers of the Enlightenment. They criticized the idea that nations grow wealthy by placing heavy tariffs on foreign goods. In fact, they argued, gov- ernment regulations only interfered with the production of wealth. These philoso- phers believed that if government allowed free trade- the flow of comrnerc~ in the world market without government regulation-the economy would prosper. Adam Smith, a professor at the University of Glasgow, Scotland, defended the idea of a free economy, or free markets, in his 1776 book The Wealth of Nations. According to Smith, economic liberty guaranteed economic progress. As a result, government should not interfere. Smith's arguments rested on what he called the three natural laws of economics: the law of self-interest- People work for their own good. the law of competition--Competition forces people to make a better product. the law of supply and demand- Enough goods would be produced at the lowest possible price to meet demand in a market economy. The Economists of Capitalism Smith's basic ideas were supported by British economists Thomas Malthus and David Ricardo. Like Smith, they believed that natural laws governed economic life. Their important ideas were the foundation of laissez-faire capitalism. Capitalism is an economic system in which the factors of production are privately owned and money is invested in business ventures to make a profit. These ideas also helped bring about the Industrial Revolution. 300 Chapter 9  In An Essay on the Princip le of Population, written in Hist ory Makers w.~·~). 1798, Thoma s Malthu s argued that population tended to increase more rapidly than the food supply. Withou t wars and epidem ics to kill off the extra people, most were des- tined to be poor and miserable. The predictions of Malthu s seemed to be coming true in the 1840s..I ,, ~ I ,t -. ; II. ~. David Ricardo, a wealthy stockbroker, took Malthu s's theory one step further in his book, Principles of Political Econom y and Taxation ( 1817). Like Malthus, Ricardo - ,)j._ believe d that a perman ent undercl ass would always be poor. In a market system, if there are many workers and abunda nt resources, then labor and resources are cheap. If there are few worker s and scarce resources, then they are expensive..Adam Smith. : - --172S~ 1790 -- :-·:: Ricardo believe d that wages would be forced down as 0.. , -: l M populat ion increas ed. In his book·11Je Wealth cif Nations, Smith argu~d that if individuals freely ~ Laissez-faire thinkers such as Smith, Malthus, and Ricardo ·follolll(ed their own self-interest, the f What did opposed government efforts to help poor workers. They world would be an orderly and pro- Malthus and ~cardo say about thought that creating minimu m wage laws and better working gressive _pla~e. Social harmony would the effects of popu- conditions would upset the free market system, lower profits, ·result without any government lation growth? and undermine the production of wealth in society. ~ direction, "as if by an invisible hand_" - Smith applied an invisible hand ·o f his own. After his death, people The Rise of Socialism discovered-that he had secretly In contras t to laissez-faire philosophy, which advised gov- :: donated -large.sums of his income · to charities. · ernmen ts to leave busines s alone, other theorists believed that govern ments should intervene. These thinkers believed ~ hmhsoc ialstudi es.com that wealthy people or the government must take action to._RESEARCH WEB LINKS Go online for improv e people' s lives. The French writer Alexis de ·more on 1dam. Smith. Tocqueville gave a warning: PRIM ARY SOUR CE Consider what is happen ing among the working classes.... Do you not see spreading , among them, little by little, opinions and ideas that aim not to overturn such and such a ministry, or such laws, or such a government, but society itself, to shake it to the foundat ions upon which it now rests? ALEXIS DE TOCQUEVILLE, 1848 speech Utilitarianism English philosopher Jeremy Bentha m modifie d the ideas of Adam Smith. In the late 1700s, Bentha m introduced the philosophy of utilitarianism. Bentha m wrote his most influential works in the late 1700s. Accord ing to Bentha m's theory, people should judg~ ideas, institutions, and actions on the basis of their util- ity, or usefulness. He argued that the government should try to promot e the greates t good for the greates t number of people. A government policy was only useful if it promot ed this goal. Bentha m believed that in general the individual should be free to pursue his or her own advantage without interference from the state. John Stuart Mill, a philoso pher and econom ist, led the utilitarian movem ent in the 1800s. Mill came to questio n unregulated capitalism. He believe d it was wrong that workers should lead deprive d lives that sometim es bordere d on starvati on. Mill wished to help ordinar y working people with policie s that would lead to a more 'ng equal division of profits. He also favored a coopera tive system of agricul ture and I wantHtowdid M·11i women's rights, includi ng the right to vote. Mill called for the governm ent to do '' JU1 Key Concept s >:. '»:~ · ~ capit~lism vs.. ~ocialism economic system called cap1tahsm developed gradually over centuries The ·nning ·in the Iate Mi'ddl beg1 e Ages. Because of the ways industrialization '. I. changed society, some peop e began to thmk that capitalism led to certain roblems, such as the ~b~se of workers. They responded by developing a ~ew system of economic ideas called socialism. Capitalism Socialism Individuals and businesses own property and the The community or the state should own property means of production. and the means of production. Progress results when individuals follow their own Progress results when a community of producers self-interest. cooperate for the good of all. Businesses follow their own self-interest by Socialists believe that capitalist employers take competing for the consumer's money. Each business advantage of workers. The community or state must tries to produce goods or services that are better act to protect workers. and less expensive than those of competitors. Consumers compete to buy the best goods at the Capitalism creates unequal distribution of wealth lowest prices. This competition shapes the market and material goods. A better system is to distribute by affecting what businesses are able to sell. goods according to each person's need. Government should not interfere in the economy An unequal distribution of wealth and material because competition creates efficiency in business. goods is unfair. A better system is to distribute goods according to each person's need. L SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Charts 1. Developing Historical Perspective Consider the following people from 19th-century Britain: factory worker, shop owner, factory owner, unemployed artisan. Which of them would be most likely to prefer capitalism and which would prefer socialism? Why? I _ _j 2. Fonning and Supporting Opinions Which system of economic ideas seems most widespread today? Support your opinion. The Future According to Marx Marx believed that the capitalist system, which produced the Industrial Revolution, would eventually destroy itself in the following way. Factories would drive small artisans out of business, leaving a small number of manufacturers to control all the wealth. The large proletariat would revolt, seize the factories and mills from the capitalists, and produce what society needed. Workers, sharing in the profits, would bring about economic equality for all people. The workers would control the government in a "dictatorship of the proletariat." After a period of cooperative living and education, the state or government would wither away as a classless society developed. Marx called this final phase pure communism. Marx described communism as a form of complete socialism in which the means of production- all land, mines, factories, railroads, and businesses- would be owned by the people. Private prop- erty would in effect cease to exist. All goods and services would be shared equally. Published in 1848, The Communist Manifesto produced few short-term results. Though widespread revolts shook Europe during 1848 and 1849, Europe's leaders eventually put down the uprisings. Only after the turn of the century did the fiery Marxist pamphlet produce explosive results. In the 1900s, Marxism inspired revolutionaries such as Russia's Lenin, China's Mao Zedong, and Cuba's Fidel Castro. These leaders adapted Marx's beliefs to their own specific situations and needs. The Industrial Revolution 303  Jn Jtj" The J.7§ < ~anifesto, Marx and. Engels s~ted their belief that econo1me-sforces alone donnnated society. Time has shown, however, that religion, nationalism, ethnic loyalties, and a desire for democratic reforms may be as strong influences on history as economic forces. In addi- tion, the gap between the rich and the poor within the indus- trialized countries failed to widen in the way that Marx and Engels predicted, mostly because of the various reforms enacted by governments. Labor Unions and Reform Laws Communism Today Factory workers faced long hours, dirty and dangerous Communism expanded to all parts working conditions, and the threat of being laid off. By the of the world during the Cold War that l 800s, working people became more active in politics. To followed the end of World War II. press for reforms, workers joined together in voluntary (See map on page 529.) At the peak labor associations called unions. of Communist expansion in the 1980s, about 20 nations were Unionization A union spoke for all the workers in a par- Communist-controlled, including two ticular trade. Unions engaged in collective bargaining, of the world's largest-China and the negotiations between workers and their employers. They Soviet Union. However, dissatisfaction bargained for better working conditions and higher pay. If with the theories of Karl Marx had factory owners refused these demands, union members ~fP.ee11 developing...~:;j{~.1~11~ most Communist could strike, or refuse to work. ·=:g~l'Qiri.~~,wer:e replaced. Today, Skilled workers led the way in forming unions because... --- ·..:-"' ·.._·,-....-:.-~ ~ _: ~-~ -~rin>nly~~mynist their special skills gave them extra bargaining power..; rouiitii~iria;-Nortti"'i !1 were sorne of irnportant Reformers in the United States also passed laws to protect child workers. In 1904, a group of pro- !he rn bills passed gressive reformers organized the National Child refor. · Britainduring Labor Committee to end child labor. Arguing that in. d7 this peno · child labor lowered wages for all workers, union members joined the reformers. Together they pres- sured national and state politicians to ban child labor and set maximum working hours. In 1919, the U.S. Supreme Court objected to a federal child labor law, ruling that it interfered with states' rights to regulate labor. However, individual states were allowed to limit the working hours of women and, later, of men. Hungarian workers meet The Reform Movement Spreads to plan their Almost from the beginning, reform movements rose in response to the negative strategy before impact of industrialization. These reforms included improving the workplace and a strike. extending the right to vote to working-class men. The same impulse toward reform, along with the ideals of the French Revolution, also helped to end slavery and pro- mote new rights for women and children. lhe Abolition of Slavery William Wilberforce, a highly religious man, was a mem- ber of Parliament who led the fight for abolition- the end of the slave trade and slav- ery in the British Empire. Parliament passed a bill to end the slave trade in the British West Indies in 1807. After he retired from Parliament in 1825, Wilberforce contin- ued his fight to free the slaves. Britain finally abolished slavery in its empire in 1833. British antislavery activists had mixed motives. Some, such as the abolitionist Wilberforce, were morally against slavery. Others viewed slave labor as an eco- nomic threat. Furthermore, a new class of industrialists developed who supported cheap labor rather than slave labor. They soon gained power in Parliament. In the United States the movement to fulfill the promise of the Declaration of Independence by ending slavery grew in the early 1800s. The enslavement of African people finally ended in the United States when the Union won the Civil War in 1865. Then, enslavement persisted in the Americas only in Puerto Rico, Cuba, and Brazil. In Puerto Rico, slavery was ended in 1873. Spain finally abol- ished slavery in its Cuban colony in 1886. Not until 1888 did Brazil's huge enslaved population win freedom. lhe Fight for Women's Rights The Industrial Revolution proved a mixed bless- ing for women. On the one hand, factory work offered higher wages than work done at home. Women spinners in Manchester, for example, earned much more money than women who stayed home to spin cotton thread. On the other hand, women factory workers usually made only one-third as much money as men did. Women led reform movements to address this and other pressing social issues. During the mid-l 800s, for example, women formed unions in the trades where they dominated. In Britain, some women served as safety inspectors in factories where other women worked. In the United States, college-educated women like Jane Addams ran settlement houses. These community centers served the poor residents of slum neighborhoods. The Industrial Revolution 305