BLOCK 2 Unit 4 3ESO Notes PDF

Geography & History 3ESO BLOCK 2​ POLITICAL POWER AND CONFLICT IN A GLOBALIZED WORLD​ UNIT 4. Systems of Government and Political Change 1. Introduction to Systems of Government The organization of power and authority in societies has been a central aspect of human history. The way governments d...

Geography & History 3ESO BLOCK 2​ POLITICAL POWER AND CONFLICT IN A GLOBALIZED WORLD​ UNIT 4. Systems of Government and Political Change 1. Introduction to Systems of Government The organization of power and authority in societies has been a central aspect of human history. The way governments distribute power reflects the values, struggles, and aspirations of their people. Throughout history, three major systems of governance have dominated: monarchies, democracies, and dictatorships. In a monarchy, power is concentrated in the hands of a king or queen. Monarchies can be absolute, where the monarch holds total control over all aspects of governance, or constitutional, where their power is limited by laws and shared with other governing bodies. Absolute monarchies, such as those in 17th- and 18th-century France, were justified by the "divine right of kings," the idea that the monarch’s authority came directly from God. Constitutional monarchies, such as England after 1689, marked a shift toward limiting royal power and increasing representation. Democracy, derived from the Greek word demos (people), places power in the hands of citizens. In a democracy, people participate directly or indirectly in decision-making, through systems that prioritize equality, freedoms, and accountability. It seeks to ensure that power is not concentrated in one individual or institution but is balanced across branches of government. Dictatorships, in contrast, concentrate power in the hands of one leader or a small group. These regimes often use propaganda, force, and suppression of opposition to maintain authority. While dictatorial systems can bring stability, they typically curtail freedoms and limit public participation. 1  Geography & History 3ESO These systems of governance have shaped history, influencing revolutions, social movements, and the development of modern democracies. 2. Ancien Régime The Ancien Régime was the political and social system that dominated France and much of Europe during the 17th and 18th centuries. This system was deeply rooted in feudal traditions and marked by absolute monarchy, a rigid social hierarchy, and an agrarian economy. Political Structure​ Under the Ancien Régime, absolute monarchy was the prevailing political system. Kings held all legislative, executive, and judicial powers, making laws, enforcing them, and judging legal disputes. Louis XIV of France, known as the "Sun King," epitomized this system. His court at Versailles symbolized the centralization of power and royal grandeur. Louis XIV controlled the nobility by requiring them to reside at Versailles, thereby reducing their influence in their local regions. Louis XIV famously declared, “L’État, c’est moi” (“I am the state”), emphasizing his role as the ultimate authority. The power of the monarch was considered divine and hereditary, passed down through generations without challenge. Social Structure​ French society under the Ancien Régime was rigidly stratified into three estates: 1.​ The First Estate (Clergy): Representing the Catholic Church, the clergy held vast privileges, including exemption from taxes and control over large landholdings. They influenced every aspect of life, from education to spiritual beliefs. 2.​ The Second Estate (Nobility): The nobility enjoyed privileges such as tax exemptions and access to high-ranking positions in the military and government. The upper nobility lived luxuriously, often at court, while lower-ranking nobles managed estates in the provinces. 3.​ The Third Estate: This group included peasants, artisans, and the bourgeoisie (middle class). Despite comprising over 95% of the population, the Third Estate had 2  Geography & History 3ESO little political power and carried the tax burden. The growing bourgeoisie, who were often wealthy and educated, became increasingly resentful of their exclusion from governance. Economic Structure​ The economy of the Ancien Régime was primarily agrarian, with feudal practices still dominating rural life. Peasants worked the land for noble landlords, often paying high taxes and fees. Trade and manufacturing were expanding in cities, but poor infrastructure and restrictive economic policies hindered growth. The stark inequality between the privileged estates and the overburdened Third Estate created widespread dissatisfaction, setting the stage for revolution. However, absolute monarchies also faced criticism for their inefficiency and lack of representation. The reliance on high taxation to support royal expenses and military campaigns often placed significant burdens on the lower classes, leading to social unrest. While absolute monarchies thrived in countries like France and Spain, exceptions such as England and Holland emerged. In England, conflicts between the monarchy and Parliament led to the Glorious Revolution of 1688, resulting in the establishment of a constitutional monarchy. Under this system, the monarch's powers were limited by the Bill of Rights, and governance required parliamentary approval. 3. The English Parliamentary Monarchy England provides one of the most notable examples of the shift from absolute monarchy to constitutional monarchy. The 17th century was a time of intense political turmoil, as conflicts between the monarchy and Parliament fundamentally altered the structure of English governance. The Case of Charles I and the English Civil War​ King Charles I attempted to rule without Parliament, imposing taxes and centralizing power in a manner reminiscent of absolute monarchies. This led to the English Civil War (1642–1651), where supporters of the king (Royalists) clashed with Parliamentarians led by Oliver Cromwell. After Charles I was defeated, he was tried and executed in 1649, and England briefly became a republic under Cromwell’s rule as Lord Protector. The Restoration of the Monarchy: Charles II​ Following Cromwell’s death, the monarchy was restored in 1660 under Charles II, who 3  Geography & History 3ESO sought to maintain peace with Parliament. However, tensions between royal authority and parliamentary power persisted. The Glorious Revolution and the Bill of Rights​ In 1688, the conflict between monarchy and Parliament reached its peak with the Glorious Revolution, which saw King James II, a Catholic monarch, overthrown in favor of his Protestant daughter Mary II and her husband William of Orange. This event marked the beginning of constitutional monarchy in England. Under the Bill of Rights (1689), the monarch’s powers were limited: ​ Parliament gained control over taxation and legislation. ​ The monarch could no longer suspend laws or maintain a standing army without Parliament’s consent. ​ Citizens were guaranteed basic rights, such as freedom of speech and protection from cruel punishments. This transformation established the principle that the monarch rules with the consent of the governed, laying the foundation for modern democratic governance. 4  Geography & History 3ESO 4. The Enlightenment The Enlightenment was an intellectual movement that transformed Europe in the 18th century, challenging traditional ideas about power, religion, and society. It emphasized reason, science, and individual rights, providing the foundation for revolutionary change. Key Thinkers ​ Montesquieu: Advocated for the separation of powers into three branches (legislative, executive, judicial) to prevent tyranny. ​ Voltaire: Criticized religious intolerance and absolute monarchy, promoting freedom of speech and thought. ​ Rousseau: Believed in the idea of the social contract, where governments derive their legitimacy from the will of the people. Spread of Ideas​ Enlightenment ideas spread through works like the Encyclopaedia, edited by Diderot and d’Alembert, and through salons, where intellectuals debated new concepts. These principles inspired calls for political and social reform. 5. The American Revolution The American Revolution (1775–1783) marked a turning point in the history of governance, as the thirteen American colonies broke free from British rule to establish an independent republic based on democratic principles. Several factors contributed to the revolution, including: 5  Geography & History 3ESO ​ Taxation without representation: The British imposed taxes such as the Stamp Act without granting the colonies representation in Parliament. ​ Enlightenment ideas: Thinkers like Locke and Rousseau inspired the colonists to demand equality, liberty, and self-governance. ​ Economic restrictions: The colonies faced trade limitations and economic exploitation under British policies. The revolution began with events like the Boston Tea Party and culminated in the adoption of the Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776, written by Thomas Jefferson. This document proclaimed that "all men are created equal" and asserted the right to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. The successful war against Britain, supported by allies like France, led to the creation of a republic guided by the Constitution of the United States. The American Revolution not only established a new nation but also inspired other movements worldwide, demonstrating that governance based on Enlightenment ideals was possible. 6. The French Revolution The French Revolution (1789–1799) was a monumental event that dismantled the Ancien Régime and transformed French society. Rooted in the same Enlightenment ideals that inspired the American Revolution, it sought to establish equality, liberty, and fraternity. The causes of the revolution included: ​ Social inequality: The Estates System divided French society into the privileged clergy and nobility, and the oppressed third estate, which consisted of commoners. ​ Economic crisis: France faced enormous debts, partly due to its support for the American Revolution, leading to increased taxation on the already struggling third estate. ​ Famine and unrest: Poor harvests and rising bread prices caused widespread hunger and riots. ​ Enlightenment ideas: Philosophers like Rousseau and Montesquieu advocated for democracy and the separation of powers. 6  Geography & History 3ESO The revolution began with events such as the Tennis Court Oath, where members of the third estate vowed to draft a new constitution, and the Storming of the Bastille, a symbol of royal tyranny. In 1791, the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen was adopted, asserting that "men are born free and remain free and equal in rights." The revolution became more radical with the Reign of Terror (1793–1794), during which thousands, including King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette, were executed. By 1799, political instability allowed Napoleon Bonaparte to rise to power, marking the end of the revolution. The monarchy was abolished, and France was declared a republic. 7. Conclusion The American and French Revolutions share common themes, including a rejection of absolute monarchy, a demand for equality, and the influence of Enlightenment ideas. However, they differed in their outcomes. The American Revolution established a stable democracy, while the French Revolution led to political instability and eventually the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte, who established the First French Empire. In conclusion, the American and French Revolutions, along with England’s shift to constitutional monarchy, reshaped the political landscape. They proved that Enlightenment principles could transform governance, promoting liberty, equality, and justice. Their legacies continue to inspire movements for democracy, human rights, and equality across the globe. 7