Governments and Citizens PDF

Governments and Citizens PREPARED BY: KEN M. VILLAMARTIN, MPA  State - A state is a political entity characterized by four key features: Territory: A defined geographic area with recognized boundaries. This land is where the state exercises its authority and enforces laws. Population: A grou...

Governments and Citizens PREPARED BY: KEN M. VILLAMARTIN, MPA  State - A state is a political entity characterized by four key features: Territory: A defined geographic area with recognized boundaries. This land is where the state exercises its authority and enforces laws. Population: A group of people residing within the state's territory. The population can vary in size and diversity but is subject to the state's governance. Government: An organized system or institution through which political authority is exercised. The government makes and enforces laws, provides public services, and maintains order. It can take various forms, such as democracies, monarchies, authoritarian regimes, etc. Sovereignty: Supreme authority and independence to govern itself without external interference. Sovereignty means the state has the ultimate authority over its internal and external affairs.  Athens Athens was Queen of the World. It is still adopted in modern times when "undesirable citizens" are outlawed or deported. Regarding the sacredness of the blood of the clan it is sometimes stated that the prevalence of human sacrifices seems to indicate that the clan did not look upon its blood with such sacred awe as has been suggested. But it is just these human offerings that prove the point. Primitive man lived in mortal terror of the spirits and forces of which he was ignorant. When anything terrible happened it was because some god had been offended or was hungry. Hunger was the great tragic fact ever haunting primitive man. The human sacrifice was adopted to propitiate the angry gods because it was assumed the anger was caused by hunger. As food was scarce human beings were offered. When slavery became general, slaves were sacrificed; during the pastoral period cattle were offered; and the sacrifice changed to fruits and cereals with the introduction of agriculture. https://tinyurl.com/yyqxhwkg  Rome We can watch it in Greece, in Palestine, and in Italy, and see the tempers of the sufferers reflected in Hesiod and Theognis, Amos and Hosea, and in the legends of early Rome. The history of Rome begins, as the history of Greece began, by revealing grave social disorders. Private property relations had so far superseded the old tribal communism that the crisis which accompanies the transition from kinship to political society was being fought out. https://tinyurl.com/yyqxhwkg  Middle Ages Rome, as we have already seen, collapsed internally before the barbarians overthrew it. Towards the end the empire had been nothing less than a glorious- looking facade. Despite the fact that the Roman State exercised great power and influence over the races and tribes under its domination, it nevertheless lacked the capacity for developing its colonies. It was not the aim of the Roman State to facilitate the industrial growth of its European units and thus pave the way for their transition into nations. Roman imperialism sought to levy tribute upon its colonies, and to tax them and gather imposts and tithes. In return the State was supposed to protect the inhabitants from the barbarian tribes then scouring Europe. But the more the Roman governors (placed in the provinces to gather the taxes for the State) became arrogant and blackmailers, and the Roman soldiers became tyrannical and overbearing, the more the people looked upon the barbarians, against whom they were "protected," as deliverers. The barbarians, however, did not prove to be better taskmasters than the Romans had been. We also saw that the decadence of Rome was in part traceable to slavery. https://tinyurl.com/yyqxhwkg The State within a State The Roman Catholic Church during the Middle Ages, when its power was at its peak, controlled secular education; it required to enroll those who might prove dangerous to its supremacy; and it interested itself in art and literature. It was, moreover, the greatest landlord in the Western world. Thus it was compelled to attend to these secular and material things in order to maintain its spiritual teaching. In the same way the State, in order to preserve the interests of the class whose executive it is, has been compelled to undertake various social duties so that it may appear that it is accomplishing the work of society, instead of really preserving class rule. The class nature of the State is clearly revealed when we remember that the State means status quo. All who are against it are put in the false position of being against society, whereas they may only be rebelling against the ruling class. It is because the State has been compelled to assume several social functions, in order to hide its essentially class nature, that distinguished "intellectuals" in the modern Labour movement have, as a result of superficial observation, regarded it as the equivalent of society. https://tinyurl.com/yyqxhwkg The Feudal State The feudal State was the organ of the barons and the Crown, by means of which the serf and small farmers were dominated. The modern capitalist State is the tool of the capitalist exploiters for intimidating wage-workers. Throughout history the State has slightly changed its form, but its role as the weapon of despotism in the hands of the economically and politically dominant class has remained unchanged. It is able to enforce its will upon those who oppose it, because behind its demands it has the organised armed force of society. The State, as we have seen, originated as a result of the growth of private property and the class struggles caused thereby; it is the weapon by means of which the subject class is held down; it is the weapon of class rule. Thus with the triumph of Socialism, with the overthrow of the system based upon private property- and its fierce class conflicts, society will not need a weapon of social coercion, and the State, as Engels said, "will die out.“ https://tinyurl.com/yyqxhwkg The Rise of the Capitalist State The term "capitalist state" refers to countries where the economic system is primarily based on capitalism. In a capitalist economy, the means of production and distribution are privately owned and operated for profit, often characterized by market competition, wage labor, and capital accumulation https://tinyurl.com/yyqxhwkg Modern Capitalism Modern capitalism is an evolved form of capitalism characterized by advanced industrial and technological development, complex financial systems, and a globalized economy. https://tinyurl.com/yyqxhwkg Revolutionary Socialism Revolutionary socialism is a political ideology that advocates for the radical transformation of society through the overthrow of capitalist systems and the establishment of a socialist state. Unlike reformist socialism, which seeks to achieve socialism through gradual, democratic means within the existing political framework, revolutionary socialism calls for a more immediate and often violent break with the existing order. https://tinyurl.com/yyqxhwkg Political Risks Political risk refers to the potential for losses or negative impacts on business operations, investments, or economic stability due to political changes or instability. These risks can arise from a variety of political actions or events that disrupt the normal operations of businesses or economies. https://www.academia.edu/3621866/Political_Risk_Concepts_Definitions_Challenges Political Risks 1. Government Actions - Changes in government policies, regulations, or leadership can create uncertainty for businesses. This includes changes in tax laws, trade policies, environmental regulations, and labor laws. 2. Regulatory Risks - The imposition of new regulations or the enforcement of existing ones in a manner that affects business operations. For example, stricter environmental regulations might increase operational costs. 3. Nationalization and Expropriation - The risk that a government might take control of private assets or industries without fair compensation. This is a significant concern for foreign investors in certain countries. 4. Political Instability Includes risks related to social unrest, protests, strikes, coups, and other forms of political turmoil that can disrupt business operations and economic stability. https://www.academia.edu/3621866/Political_Risk_Concepts_Definitions_Challenges Political Risk 5. Conflict and Violence - Wars, civil conflicts, terrorism, and other forms of violence can pose severe risks to businesses, including damage to property, disruption of supply chains, and harm to employees. 6. Corruption and Bureaucracy - High levels of corruption or bureaucratic inefficiency can increase the cost of doing business, create unpredictability, and lead to unfair competitive practices. 7. Economic Policies - Changes in economic policies, such as currency controls, changes in interest rates, and shifts in monetary policy, can affect business profitability and economic stability. 8. Trade Barriers - The imposition of tariffs, quotas, or other trade restrictions can impact businesses that rely on international trade. Trade wars between countries also pose significant risks. https://www.academia.edu/3621866/Political_Risk_Concepts_Definitions_Challenges Challenges of Political Risk ✓Uncertainty and Unpredictability ✓Financial Losses ✓Operational Disruptions ✓Investment Risks ✓Legal and Regulatory Changes ✓Market Access and Trade Barriers ✓Reputational Damage ✓Security Risks ✓Currency and Exchange Rate Risks ✓Compliance and Ethical Dilemmas ✓Adverse Policy Shifts https://www.academia.edu/3621866/Political_Risk_Concepts_Definitions_Challenges International Law and Organization World Trade Organization (WTO) Agreements ▪To promote international trade by reducing tariffs and other trade barriers. ▪Provide Rules for trade in goods, principles of non-discrimination (most- favored-nation and national treatment), and mechanisms for dispute resolution. ✓General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) - To extend the multilateral trading system to the services sector. ✓Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) - To set minimum standards for the protection and enforcement of intellectual property rights. https://www.britannica.com/topic/international-law/International-organizations International Law and Organization International Monetary Fund (IMF) Agreements ▪To promote international monetary cooperation and exchange rate stability. ▪Serves as Surveillance of member economies, provision of financial assistance, and policy advice to stabilize economies. ✓World Bank Group Agreements - To provide loans and grants for development projects in developing countries. https://www.britannica.com/topic/international-law/International-organizations  International Law and Organization World Bank Group Agreements International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) ▪To provide loans and grants for development projects in developing countries. ▪Funding for infrastructure, education, and health projects; emphasis on poverty reduction. https://www.britannica.com/topic/international-law/International-organizations International Law and Organization Bilateral and Multilateral Trade Agreements ✓North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) / United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement (USMCA) To eliminate trade barriers and increase economic cooperation between the US, Canada, and Mexico. ✓European Union (EU) Treaties - To create a single market among EU member states. https://www.britannica.com/topic/international-law/International-organizations  International Law and Organization Investment Treaties ▪To protect and promote foreign investments. ▪Provides Protection against expropriation, fair and equitable treatment, and dispute resolution mechanisms. https://www.britannica.com/topic/international-law/International-organizations International Law and Organization United Nations Conventions ✓United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) - To establish a legal framework for the use of the world's seas and oceans. ✓United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL) Model Laws - To harmonize and unify international trade law. https://www.britannica.com/topic/international-law/International-organizations International Law and Organization African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) ▪To create a single continental market for goods and services, with free movement of businesspersons and investments. ▪Tariff reductions, trade facilitation, and dispute resolution mechanisms. https://www.britannica.com/topic/international-law/International-organizations International Law and Organization Environmental Agreements with Economic Implications ✓Paris Agreement - To combat climate change and limit global warming. https://www.britannica.com/topic/international-law/International- organizations God bless…