GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY - Block 1 PDF

BPCG-171 GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY School of Social Sciences Indira Gandhi National Open University EXPERT COMMITTEE Prof. Vimala Veeraraghavan Dr. S. P. K. Jena Prof. Swati Patra Rtd. Professor Emeritus Associate Professor, Dept....

BPCG-171 GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY School of Social Sciences Indira Gandhi National Open University EXPERT COMMITTEE Prof. Vimala Veeraraghavan Dr. S. P. K. Jena Prof. Swati Patra Rtd. Professor Emeritus Associate Professor, Dept. of Professor, Discipline of Psychology IGNOU, New Delhi. Psychology, University of Delhi, Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi Prof. P. H. Lodhi (Retd.) Dr. Anita Kant Dr. Monika Misra Professor Associate Professor, Vivekananda Asst. Professor, Discipline of University of Pune, Pune College, University of Delhi Psychology, IGNOU, New Delhi Prof. Newman Fernandes Professor Suhas Shetgovekar Dr. Smita Gupta Pro Vice-Chancellor, Sam Higginbottom Professor, Discipline of Psychology Asst. Professor, Discipline of Institute of Agriculture Technology and IGNOU, New Delhi Psychology, IGNOU, New Delhi Sciences, Deemed University, Allahabad COURSE PREPARATION TEAM Block Unit Writer Block 1 Orientation to Psychology Unit 1 Nature of Psychology Prof. Amulya Khurana,School of Humanities and Social Sciences, and Sociocultural Processes IIT Delhi (Adapted from BPC 001, Block 1) of Behaviour Unit 2 Biological Basis of Behaviour Dr. Shailender Singh Bhati, Lecturer, G.D. Government Girls College, Alwar, Rajasthan (Adapted from BPC-001, Block 2) Unit 3 Cognitive Processes: Attention, Prof Suhas Shet govekar, IGNOU Perception, Learning, Memory and Thinking Unit 4 Affective Processes: Motivation Dr. Arti Singh, IGNOU and Emotions Block 2 Psychology of Individual Differences Unit 5 Individual Differences and Dr. Arti Singh, IGNOU Intelligence Unit 6 Theories of Personality Dr. Arti Singh, IGNOU Block 3 Developmental Processes Unit 7 Nature and Principle of Human Dr. Mamta Sharma, Assistant Professor, Department of Psychology, Development Punjabi University, Patiala & Dr. Arti Singh (IGNOU) (Adapted from BPC-002, Block 1) Unit 8 Stages of Development Dr. Mamta Sharma, Assistant Professor, Department of Psychology, Punjabi University, Patiala & Dr. Arti Singh (IGNOU) (Adapted from BPC- 002, Block 1) Unit 9 Cognitive and Moral Development Dr. Mamta Sharma, Assistant Professor, Department of Psychology, Punjabi University, Patiala (adapted from BPC-002, Block 1) Block 4 Applications of Psychology Unit 10 Applications of Psychology Prof. Amulya Khurana,School of Humanities and Social Sciences, IIT Delhi (Adapted from BPC-001, Block 1) COURSE COORDINATOR: Dr. Smita Gupta GENERAL EDITORS: Dr. Smita Gupta and Dr. Arti Singh, Discipline of Psychology, SOSS, IGNOU Print Production Mr. Rajiv Girdhar Mr. Manjit Singh Mr. Hemant Kumar Assistant Regitrar (Pub.), MPDD, IGNOU. S.O. (Pub.), SOSS, IGNOU. S.O. (Pub.), MPDD, IGNOU. January May, 2019 2020 © Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2019 ISBN: 978-93-89969-17-7 All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeography or any other means, without permission in writing from the Indira Gandhi National Open University. Further information on the Indira Gandhi National Open University courses may be obtained from the University’s Office at Maidan Garhi, New Delhi-110 068 or visit our website: http://www.ignou.ac.in Printed and published on behalf of the Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi, by Director, School of Social Sciences. Laser Typeset by : Tessa Media & Computers, C-206, A.F.E.-II, Okhla, New Delhi Printed Printed atat :: S G Print Packs Pvt. Ltd., F - 478, Sector - 63, Noida  Course Contents Page No. BLOCK 1 ORIENTATION TO PSYCHOLOGY 5 Unit 1 Nature of Psychology and Sociocultural Processes of 7 Behaviour Unit 2 Biological Basis of Behaviour 17 Unit 3 Cognitive Processes: Attention, Perception, Learning, 30 Memory, and Thinking Unit 4 Affective Processes: Motivation and Emotions 48 BLOCK 2 PSYCHOLOGY OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 65 Unit 5 Individual Differences and Intelligence 67 Unit 6 Theories of Personality 82 BLOCK 3 DEVELOPMENTAL PROCESSES 99 Unit 7 Nature and Principle of Human Development 101 Unit 8 Stages of Development 113 Unit 9 Cognitive and Moral Development 123 BLOCK 4 APPLICATIONS OF PSYCHOLOGY 131 Unit 10 Applications of Psychology 133 Glossary 143 COURSE INTRODUCTION The course of Introduction to Psychology is one of the courses of First Semester of BA (Honours) Psychology. The attempt of this course is to explain you the meaning and concept of psychology. It also explains the human behavior and their cognitive processes; biological processes and affective processes that make them behave differently. The first block of this course is Introduction to psychology which discusses the origin of the field of psychology and the emergence of psychology as an independent Discipline in the world including India. The second block of this course is- Perception which explains the steps and process of perception. It also explains how our perception is influenced by other factors. The third block of this course is- Thinking and language which deals with the process of thinking and concept of creativity. The fourth block of this course is- Learning and Memory last block of Motivation and Emotion, you will be introduced with the concept and theories related to motivation and emotion.  Block 1 Orientation to Psychology Orientation to Psychology BLOCK 1 ORIENTATION TO PSYCHOLOGY Introduction This block comprises of four units. The first unit tries to explain the concept of psychology. This unit introduces the subject of psychology. Psychology, like all academic disciplines, has its own concepts such as intelligence, personality, stress, learning, memory, thinking, perception etc. Many of the concepts of psychology are familiar to you, but many of them are new. Some of the topics included in this unit are: the nervous system, sensation and perception, learning and memory, intelligence, language and thinking, growth and development, motivation and emotion, personality, stress, psychological disorders, ways of treating those disorders, sexual behaviour, and the behaviour of people in social settings such as groups and organisations. It also tries to describe the scope, nature and method of psychology. Further, it deals with the nature and characteristics of science and tries to explain the fact that psychology, is a science. It also discusses the various methods to study psychology as well as the scope of psychology. The unit also explains the socio cultural processes that influence the human behaviour. The second unit of this block deals with the biological bases of behaviour. It describes the biological processes like heredity and endocrine glands which effects the personality and behaviour. The unit on biological basis of behaviour will provide you an overview of neurons, central nervous system, endocrine glands and their influence on our behaviour. The third unit deals with certain cognitive processes like attention, perception, learning, memory, and thinking which influences an individual’s personality and behaviour. It discusses the processes of attention and perception. It also explains certain theories of learning and models to explain the memory and the levels of memory. The last unit of this block deals with the affective processes. It discusses the concept and theories of motivation and emotion. Motivation is simply the reason for an action and it gives purpose and direction to behaviour. Motivation is “WHAT drives you” to behave in a certain way or to take a particular action.Emotion is a reaction consisting of subjective cognitive states, physiological reactions, and expressive behaviours. 6  Nature of Psychology and UNIT 1 NATURE OF PSYCHOLOGY AND Sociocultural Processes of Behaviour SOCIOCULTURAL PROCESSES OF BEHAVIOUR* Structure 1.0 Introduction 1.1 Objectives 1.2 Psychology: Its Origin and Evolution 1.2.1 Definition of Psychology 1.3 The Scientific Nature of Psychology 1.3.1 Characteristics of Science 1.4 The Scope of Psychology: What it is and what it is not 1.5 Methods of Psychology 1.6 Application of Psychology 1.7 Sociocultural Processes Underlying Behaviour 1.8 Let Us Sum Up 1.9 Unit End Questions 1.10 Glossary 1.11 Answers to Self Assessment Questions 1.12 References and Suggested Readings 1.0 INTRODUCTION Psychology is concerned with almost all aspects of our lives. That is why, everyone is interested to know about psychology. But, there are many misconceptions about psychology too. Many people think that psychology deals with treating mad people. Some others feel that psychologists can read your mind just by looking at you or your face/forehead. They tend to equate psychologists with astrologers, gemologists, numerologists, palmists or graphologists, who claim to solve your problems of life and predict your future. You might have heard the terms ‘psychology’, ‘psychological’, ‘mental’ etc., but do you know what is the meaning of psychology and how did it evolve? Is psychology a ‘science’ or ‘art’? How our brain structures affect our behaviour? What is the role of perception, attention, learning, motivation and emotions in shaping our behaviour? In this unit you will find answer to these and many more such questions. By studying psychology, you will be able to understand what psychology is and what it is not. This unit introduces the subject of psychology. 1.1 OBJECTIVES After finishing this unit, you would be able to: Understand the origin and nature of psychology; * Contributed by Prof. Amulya Khurana, School of Humanities and Social Sciences, IIT Delhi (Adapted from BPC 001, Block 1) 7 Orientation to Psychology Articulate the scientific nature of psychology; Know the Scope and application of psychology; Understand different methods to study psychology; and Understand the role of sociocultural processes underlying human behaviour. 1.2 PSYCHOLOGY: ITS ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION The origin of psychology dates back to 1870s. The term ‘Psychology’ is derived from two Greek words; Psyche means “soul or breath” and Logos means “knowledge or study” (study or investigation of something). The word ‘Psychology’ was not in common use before the nineteenth century, and the field of psychology did not actually become an independent science until the middle of the nineteenth century. Psychology emerged as an independent academic discipline in 1879, when a German Professor Wilhelm Wundt established the first psychology laboratory at the university of Leipzig, Germany. According to Bolles (1993), Wundt was a medical doctor by training and early in his career, he was fortunate to work with some of the great physiologists of the nineteenth century. Fittingly, his laboratory was established during the time he spent as a professor of philosophy. (It is important to know that the intellectual roots of psychology lie at the union of philosophy and physiology). Wundt is traditionally recognised as the founder, or father of the modern psychology, and 1879 is seen as the year in which the psychology finally emerged as a unique field. Prior to Wundt, it was not possible to major in psychology, because there were no official psychologists or psychology departments. Wundt started studying the structure of mind which meant the immediate (conscious) experience, the contents and processes of subjective experience such as sensations, thoughts, feelings and emotions. Thus, formally, psychology was recognised as an independent science in 1879. Let us now look at how psychology has been defined. 1.2.1 Definition of Psychology Psychology has been defined in a number of ways by various authors. Psychologists had been debating on whether psychology should focus on “mind”, “consciousness” or “behaviour”. Let us look at how the definitions of psychology have come a long way over the past 130 years. Earlier, psychology was part of Philosophy. Ancient philosophers were interested in the study of the soul. Thus, it was first defined in terms of ‘the science of soul’. However, since the term ‘soul’ has very wide and comprehensive meanings, it was considered as a vague term and was criticized severely in the middle ages. But now, this is not the case. Some of the famous definitions of Psychology are as follows: Psychology is the science of human and animal behaviour. It includes the application of this science to human problems. (Morgan et al., 1986) The scientific study of behaviour and mental processes. (Feldman,1996) The scientific study of behaviour and mental processes and how they are affected by an organism’s physical state, mental state and external environment. (Tavris and Wade, 1997) 8  Psychology is all about human behaviour, about mental processes, and about Nature of Psychology and Sociocultural Processes of the context in which behaviour and mental processes occur. (Das, 1998) Behaviour The science of behaviour and mental processes. (Lahey,1998) The science of behaviour and cognitive processes. (Baron, 1999) Scientific study of behaviour and mind. (Nairne, 2003) A science in which behavioural and other evidence is used to understand the internal processes leading people (and members of other species) to behave as they do. (Eysenck, 2004) The scientific study of behaviour and mental processes. (Ciccarelli & Meyer, 2006; Coon & Mitterer, 2007, 2008) The science that studies behaviour and mental processes. (Rathus,2008) As is evident in the above definitions, study of behaviour (human and animal) has been emphasised in all of them. Self Assessment Questions (SAQ I) State whether the statements are ‘True’ or ‘False’ 1) Psychology is all about human behaviour, about mental processes, and about the context in which behaviour and mental processes occur. ( ) 2) Psychology is the science of human behaviour only. ( ) 3) Psychologists are like astrologers, gemologists, numerologists, palmists or graphologists who can predict your future. ( ) 4) Earlier, psychology was part of philosophy. ( ) 5) Wundt is recognised as the father of the modern psychology. ( ) 1.3 THE SCIENTIFIC NATURE OF PSYCHOLOGY Contemporary psychologists have always defined psychology as a science of behaviour. But is it a science like physics, chemistry, biology and zoology or something different? In this section we will look at some of the definitions of science. We will also discuss the nature and characteristics of science and try to understand psychology, as a science. Let us look at the following definitions of science: Science is a systematized body of knowledge gathered through carefully observing and measuring events. (Morgan et al.,1986). Science is approach to knowledge, based on systematic observation. (Lahey,1998) The sole aim of science is to classify, understand, and unify the objects and phenomena of the material world. By using a combination of accurate observation and experimentation, logic and intuition, scientists seek to understand the rules that govern all levels of the natural universe. We will now describe the characteristics of science. 9 Orientation to Psychology 1.3.1 Characteristics of Science The observation of events are systematized in various ways, but mainly by classifying and establishing general principles and laws to describe and predict new events as accurately as possible. Psychology studies behaviour in the same way like the other sciences study their subject matter and therefore shares a number of features with them. In common with other sciences, psychology, as a science, has the following characteristics, as described by Morgan et al. (1986). Empirical observation Psychology, as a science, is first of all, an empirical process. That is to say, it rests on experiment and observation, rather than on argument, opinion, or belief. Systematic approach and theory Data from observation and experiments are essential to science, but for them “to make some sense” in helping us to understand events, they must be ordered in some way. Like scientist a psychologist also tries to find out of principles to summarize the data economically. Therefore, the theories and organisation of data in psychological research in systematic. Measurement Another distinguishing feature of many sciences is measurement, which refers to assignment of numbers to objects or events according to certain rules. Physics is ranked highest (most scientific) among the sciences as it has developed the most precise measurements. Like other sciences, psychology also involves measurement. Definition of terms Careful definition of terms is essential to clear thinking in science. The procedure in psychology is to define concepts by relating them to observable behaviour (operational definition). When we define a concept operationally, we define it in terms of measurable and observable operations. For example, the concepts of length, height in physics, and concepts like intelligence, motivation, personality in psychology are defined in terms of observable operations, which can be performed to measure them. However, psychology cannot measure many behaviours such as bravery, friendship, love, beauty etc. as these cannot be defined operationally. The above characteristics are common to all sciences including psychology. However, psychology is a different type of science (Behavioural science). In physics or chemistry, researchers investigate processes and events which remain stable and constant to a large extent. This makes it possible to measure and predict with a reasonable degree of accuracy. But it is not the case with human behaviour, which is highly complex, not easily controllable, and appears to be much more unpredictable than the reactions of physical and chemical substances. Whereas other sciences investigate things around man, the psychology studies man himself. The methods used in psychological research include observation, interviews, psychological testing, laboratory experimentation, and statistical analysis. Thus, psychology is categorized under the youngest group of scientific inquiry, the ‘Social/Behavioural Sciences’, which also includes subjects like anthropology, 10 economics, education, geography, history, linguistics, sociology etc. (Rush, 1972). The first group of sciences are the ‘Physical Sciences’, which include subjects Nature of Psychology and Sociocultural Processes of like physics, chemistry etc. Next is the ‘Biological / Life Sciences’ that include Behaviour such subjects as biology, botany, zoology etc. The application of knowledge to practical problems is an art; it is the skill or knack for doing things which is acquired by study, practice and special experience. Since principles and laws of psychology are applied to solve human problems in a number of situations (families, schools, organisations, environment) as well as treating behaviour disorders and emotional problems, Therefore, it is a behavioural science. 1.4 THE SCOPE OF PSYCHOLOGY : WHAT IT IS AND WHAT IT IS NOT Psychology is an exciting field. It is at once familiar, exotic, surprising, and challenging. Psychology is about each of us. It asks us to take a reflective attitude as we inquire, “How can we step outside of ourselves to look objectively at how we live, think, feel, and act?” psychologists believe the answer is through careful thought, observation, and inquiry (Coon & Mitterer, (2008). According to Parameswaran & Beena (2002), some people regard psychology as a part of philosophy. Others equate it with magic. Some view it as madness. Still others are of the opinion that psychologists are either mystics or mysterious people, their interest in psychology mainly arises from uninformed curiosity. They are of the view that if they studied psychology, they would learn about miracles, mysteries, madness and that it would be an exotic experience. Many of them feel that the main use of psychology is to treat mentally ill individuals. While certainly this is an important area of application, yet it is not the only area. Today, psychology finds useful applications in an individual’s life almost from the womb to the tomb. Psychology, like all academic disciplines, has its own concepts such as intelligence, personality, stress, learning, memory, thinking, perception etc. Many of the concepts of psychology are familiar to you, but many of them are new. The topics included in psychology are: the nervous system, sensation and perception, learning and memory, intelligence, language and thinking, growth and development, motivation and emotion, personality, stress, psychological disorders, ways of treating those disorders, sexual behaviour, and the behaviour of people in social settings such as groups and organisations. The goals of psychology, like other sciences, are to describe, explain, predict and control (Coon & Mitterer, 2008) the phenomena it studies. Psychology, thus, attempts to describe, explain, predict and control behaviour and mental processes. Psychology as a science of behaviour, attempts to explain the ‘why’ and ‘how’ of behaviour. The knowledge of psychology can also be applied to solve various problems facing human beings, be it at home, society, work place or in the whole world. Self Assessment Questions (SAQ II) Fill in the Blanks 1) Psychology as a science of behaviour, attempts to explain the ‘why’ and ‘how’ of............................................................................. 11 Orientation to Psychology 2) Psychology attempts to describe, explain, predict and control............................................... and.................................................. 3) Other sciences investigate things around man whereas, psychology studies about...................................................................... 4) Measurement is defined as assignment of numbers to objects or events according to................................................................ 5) The procedure in psychology is to define concepts by relating them to............................................................... behaviour. 1.5 METHODS OF PSYCHOLOGY There are various methods to study psychology. Here we are going to discuss three major methods of psychological inquiry. a) Experimental Method: In this method investigation starts with defining a research problem. With the help of available literature, appropriate hypotheses (statement referring to proposed explanation of an idea or expected outcome) are generated. Then experiment is conducted to test proposed hypotheses. The investigator manipulates an independent variable and studies its effect on dependent variables. The goal of an experiment is to investigate and explore facts and causes. b) Correlation Method: Correlation refers to analyse how change in one variable causes change in another variable. Therefore, we can say that this method investigates the co-variability between two variables of study. If change in one variable leads to change in another, then we can suggest that some degree of correlation exists between these two variables. The correlation value is measured in terms of correlation coefficient, r. The value of correlation coefficient can vary from +1 to -1.The value of +1 represents a perfect positive correlation, -1 represents perfect negative correlation. Whereas, r = 0 represent zero correlation. c) Observation Method: It involves studying a phenomenon by observing it. The researcher simply makes systematic observation of the event or behaviour in its natural environment. After making observation for a number of times, researcher attempts to seek the reasons behind it. 1.6 APPLICATIONS OF PSYCHOLOGY Clinical Psychology: A clinical psychologist does psychotherapy; investigates clinical problems; develops methods of treatment. This field emphasises on the diagnosis, causes, and treatment of severe psychological disorders and emotional troubles. Community Psychology: This field promotes community-wide mental health through research, prevention, education, and consultation. Community psychologists apply psychological principles, ideas, and points of view to help solve social problems and to help individuals in adapting to their work and living groups. 12 Counseling Psychology: A counseling Psychologist does psychotherapy and Nature of Psychology and Sociocultural Processes of personal counseling; s/he researches emotional disturbances and counseling Behaviour methods. This branch deals with helping people/individuals with personal problems including interpersonal relations, career choice, mild emotional troubles or behavioural problems such as over eating, slow learning or lack of concentration. Educational Psychology: The field investigates classroom dynamics, teaching styles, and learning; develops educational tests, evaluates educational programs suitable for smooth flow of education among students. This branch deals with broader problem of increasing the efficiency of learning in school by applying psychological knowledge of learning and motivation to the curriculum. Forensic Psychology: The field Investigates problems of crime and crime prevention, rehabilitation programs, prisons, courtroom dynamics; selects candidates for police work. Forensic psychologists mostly work within the judicial system in certain areas like assessing emotional and psychological state of under trials and victims, evaluation of rehabilitation programmes; eyewitness testimony and evidence; jury selection; and police training etc. Industrial/Organisational Psychology: The field investigates all aspects of behaviour in work setting ranging from selection and recruitment of employees, performance appraisal, work motivation to leadership. Environmental Psychology: The field studies the effects of urban noise, crowding, attitudes toward the environment, and human use of space. The expert psychologists of the field act as consultants on environmental issues. Health Psychology: The field of health psychology studies the relationship between behaviour and health; uses psychological principles to promote health and prevent illness. 1.7 SOCIOCULTURAL PROCESSES UNDERLYING BEHAVIOUR Humans are referred as a social animal and thus their behaviour is also governed by many social factors such as family, peers, their society and culture. Our behaviour is much more complex than any other animal on this planet and sole reason for this is the ‘sociocultural’ factors that regulate our behaviour. For example, need for thirst is the basic biological need which is common across humans and animals. However, the way we humans gratify it is completely different from animals. For example, some people will drink cold water, some will drink lukewarm water, and some may prefer normal water while others may prefer soda water or juice to ward off their thirst. This example shows that our behaviour is not governed by biological factors only but various social and cultural factors also play vital role in shaping it. Family is one of the most important sociocultural factors that affect our behaviour. Since birth, family is our primary source of interaction and thus play vital role in value acquisition and role expectations. Bandura have suggested in his theory that child learns behaviour by imitating others and especially elder models. In case of family, a child learns to act in a particular way by observing her/his 13 Orientation to Psychology parents, siblings and other relevant caregivers. Thus, it can be suggested that family plays an important role in learning any behaviour. Further, the type of family, number of caregivers, number of siblings, family’s socioeconomic condition etc. factors also affects one’s behaviour. Another important sociocultural process underlying our behaviour is society and culture. Often these two terms are used interchangeably but they carry different meanings. Society refers to a group of people which shares a common territory, language and culture, other neighboring group of people or society. Many studies have found that our society and culture affect our behaviour at deeper level. For example, in individualistic culture like America and European countries emphasize independences, individual rights and, being assertive are considered important traits. Whereas, collective cultures (like India and China) promote traits like dependable, self-sacrificing and helping others. Self Assessment Questions (SAQ III) Briefly answer the following questions: 1) How can an investigator test a hypothesis?......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2) How is family one of the most important sociocultural factors that affect our behaviour ?......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3) What are the areas that Forensic Psychology deals with?......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4) What is an observation method?......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5) What is the value of correlation coefficient?......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 14  Nature of Psychology and 1.8 LET US SUM UP Sociocultural Processes of Behaviour This unit is an attempt to give a broad overview of psychology to the new bees of this discipline. We started with origin and definition of psychology. Then we explored if psychology is scientific in nature or not. We also talked about different methods of studying psychology and how psychology can be applied in different spheres of life. Lastly, sociocultural processes underlying our behaviour were covered in this unit. 1.9 UNIT END QUESTIONS 1) Define psychology and write a short note on the origin of psychology as a discipline. 2) Can we consider psychology as science? Support your answer with appropriate justification. 3) What are the different methods to study psychology? 4) What are the different applications of psychology? 5) Write a short note on how sociocultural processes affect our behaviour? 1.10 GLOSSARY Psychology : It is the science of human and animal behaviour. It includes the application of this science to human problems. Empirical observation: Observation based on experiment, rather than on argument, opinion, or belief. Science : It is a systematized body of knowledge gathered through carefully observing and measuring events. Clinical Psychology : It is that branch of psychology which deals with the assessment and treatment of mental illness and abnormal behaviour. Experimental method : It involves manipulating one variable to determine if changes in one variable cause changes in another variable. Observation method : Observation method involves watching a participant in his or her natural setting and recording relevant behavior for later analysis. 1.11 ANSWERS TO SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS Self Assessment Question I 1) True 15 Orientation to Psychology 2) False 3) False 4) True 5) True Self Assessment Question II 1) behaviour 2) behaviour and mental processes 3) the man himself 4) certain rules 5) observable Self Assessment Question III 1) To test a hypothesis, investigator manipulates an independent variable and studies its effect on dependent variables. 2) Since birth family is our primary source of interaction and thus play vital role in value acquisition and role expectations. 3) Forensic Psychology investigates problems of crime and crime prevention, rehabilitation programs, prisons, courtroom dynamics; selects candidates for police work. Forensic psychologists mostly work within the judicial system. 4) Observation method involves watching a participant in his or her natural setting and recording relevant behavior for later analysis. 5) The value of correlation coefficient can vary from +1 to -1.The value of +1 represents a perfect positive correlation, -1 represents perfect negative correlation. Whereas, r=0 represent zero correlation. 1.12 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS Benjamin Jr, L. T. (2007). A Brief History of Modern Psychology. Blackwell publishing. Kalat, J. W. (2016). Introduction to Psychology. Nelson Education. Baron, R.A.(2001). Psychology. 5th Edition. Pearson Education, New Delhi, India. Mishra, G. & Baron, R. A. (2006). Psychology : Indian Subcontinent (5th Edition). New Delhi, Pearson Publication Morgan, C. T., King, R. A., Weisz, J. R. & Schopler, J. (2004). Introduction to Psychology. New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill. Moore, B.C.J. (2003). An Introduction to the Psychology of Hearing. Academic Press. 16  Nature of Psychology and UNIT 2 BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF Sociocultural Processes of Behaviour BEHAVIOUR* Structure 2.0 Introduction 2.1 Objectives 2.2 Neurons 2.2.1 Classification and Types of Neuron 2.2.2 Nerve Impulse 2.3 Nervous System 2.3.1 Central Nervous System 2.3.1.1 Spinal Cord 2.3.1.2 Brain 2.3.2 Peripheral Nervous System 2.3.2.1 Somatic Nervous System 2.3.2.2 Autonomi Nervous System 2.4 Role of Endocrine Glands 2.5 Let Us Sum Up 2.6 Unit End Questions 2.7 Glossary 2.8 Answers to Self Assessment Questions 2.9 References and Suggested Readings 2.0 INTRODUCTION Can we control all of our behaviour or are there some behaviours for which we have no control? You would be amazed to know that many of our behaviours are hard-wired in our brains and we have very little control over it. In this unit, we will discuss those biological structures that play vital role in influencing our behaviour. As a student of psychology and future psychologists, you should be aware of all important links between our biological structure and behaviours. This unit on biological basis of behaviour will provide you an overview of neurons, central nervous system and endocrine glands and their influence on our behaviour. 2.1 OBJECTIVES After finishing this unit, you would be able to: Identify the nature and structure of neurons; Understand different classification of neurons based on structure and functions; Comprehend the way neurons transmit signals from one cell to another; Understand the basic structure of central nervous system; * Contributed by Dr. Shailender Singh Bhati, Lecturer, G.D. Government Girls College, Alwar, Rajasthan (Adapted from BPC-001, Block 2) 17 Orientation to Psychology Understand the division of our brain; and Have an in-depth understanding of the functions of different endocrine glands in our behaviour. 2.2 NEURONS Neuron is the smallest unit of nervous system. Before proceeding to discuss the main nervous system, we must, first understand neuron, its types, structure and functions. It is neuron which converts stimulation from different stimuli into electrical impulse. Structurally a neuron is divided into three parts: Dendrite Cell body Axon Fig.2.1: Neuron Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org The dendrite is a bushy structure. Its main function is to receive nerve impulses from other neurons and send to cell body. The cell body, also called soma is the second main part of neuron. It is filled with a liquid called cytoplasm and nucleus is in its center. It sends nerve impulse to another neuron through axon and keeps the nerve cell alive and healthy. The axon is a long structure having end buttons known as endbrush. It functions to receive nerve impulse coming from cell body and sends it to the endbrush. 2.2.1 Classification and Types of Neuron Neurons can be classified on basis of functions and structure of neurons. Classification on the basis of function of the neurons i) Sensory neuron: They are responsible for carrying nerve impulse from sense organ to the brain and spinal cord. ii) Motor neuron: They are responsible to carry nerve impulse from brain and spinal cord to effector muscles, so that organism makes response to stimulus and, iii) Association neuron: Also known as interneurons, these neurons are found only within the brain and spinal cord. The main function of these neurons are to receive sensory information, process it and to decide how to respond 18 for it.  Classification on the basis of the structure of the neurons Biological Basis of Behaviour Neurons can also be classified based on their structure. Based on sturucture, there are three types of neurons namely, unipolar neurons, bipolar neurons and multipolar neurons. Fig. 2.2: Types of Neurons Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org i) Unipolar neurons: These neurons have one axon that separates from the soma and branches into two. These neurons are involved in sensory functions. They send impulses received from the environment to the central nervous system. ii) Bipolar neurons: They have one axon and one dendrite which separate itself into branches like a tree. The dendrites of these neurons are always placed at the opposite end of the soma. They are very few in numbers and can be found in the retina of the eye, the inner ear and in the olfactory path. iii) Multipolar neurons: These neurons have only one axon but several dendrites. They are located in our brain and spinal cord. 2.2.2 Nerve Impulse You must be wondering that you were informed about cell, neurons, their types, structures and functions, but exactly how do the brain function? How it receives information and how it sends information? Answer to your questions is nerve impulse. A nerve impulse is an electrical event. When a neuron is in stable or resting condition, the neuron inside has negative electrical charge and outside portion of neuron is positively charged. Whenever some stimulation takes place it disturbs this electrical balance, so that the inside becomes positive and outside gets negative. At this moment an impulse is generated aimed at restoring this balance. In this process electrical disbalance runs throughout the membrane. This impulse is then transmitted to another neuron via axon. In this way a chain of reaction occurs till it reaches the concerned part of the brain where the meaning of this impulse is deciphered and brain sends directives for activity to the concerned parts of the body. 19 Orientation to Psychology Self Assessment Questions (SAQ I) Answer the following questions in ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ 1) Is the nerve impulse transmitted to another neuron via axon? ( ) 2) Does the multipolar neuron have only one dendrite? ( ) 3) Does the dendrite send nerve impulses? ( ) 4) Is the neuron the smallest unit of nervous system? ( ) 5) Is the neuron divided in to three parts? ( ) 2.3 NERVOUS SYSTEM Nervous system is a complex structure. It controls all our activities and functions as a whole in an integrated manner. Given below is the flow chart of human nervous system. Fig. 2.3: Flow Chart of Human Nervous System 2.3.1 Central Nervous System Our central nervous system comprises of two parts i.e. brain and spinal cord. 2.3.1.1 Spinal Cord It runs from cervics to the end of waist. It is filled with fluid which is covered with meninges. It has thirty one divisions from which pairs of spinal nerves come out at regular intervals. It is a good conductor of nerve impulses. All the sensory information from various parts of body are received here and then sent to higher parts of the brain. All motor information from brain first enters spinal cord and then sent to different parts of body for action. Besides this, the spinal cord also functions as center of reflex actions. Given its importance, it also called the automatic machine. 2.3.1.2 Brain Brain is located in the bony skull. Within the skull, the brain is protected by three layers of tissues called meninges. Outer most layer is called dura matter and inner most layer is called pia matter. Between these two layers is a soft membrane 20 called arechnoid. Arechnoid is filled with CSF (cerebro spinal fluid). Our brain is composed of white and grey matter. White matter is called so because it is Biological Basis of Behaviour covered with a sheath known as mylin sheath. From the view point of physiologists, the brain is divided into three parts, which is as given below. Fore brain (thalamus, hypothalamus and cerebrum). Mid brain (situated between forebrain and hind brain) Hind brain (medulla, pons, cerebellum and reticular formation) Let us start our journey of brain from the back i.e. Hind brain, because from evolutionary point of view it is the earliest part to develop. The first and foremost structure of Hind brain is medulla. Medulla connects higher parts of the brain with spinal cord. It also includes a portion of reticular formation, and is called the vital center of the brain. It is responsible for autonomic activities of respiration, heart rate, blood pressure etc. Destruction of this part of the brain can lead to instant death of the organism. Pons, another important part of Hind brain, is located above the medulla. It contains different types of sensory and motor neurons. It receives sensory information from some parts of face and head and sensations of touch, pain, and temperature. It also regulates motor activities related to facial expressions, muscular activities, eye balls and jaw movements. Besides it also acts as connection center between higher and lower parts of brain. Cerebellum, located at the back of Hind brain, is a complex structure. Its outer structure is composed of grey matter while inner structure is made up of white matter. In appearance it resembles cerebral cortex. Its main function is to coordinate motor activities. Destruction of cerebellum leads to lack of coordination as for example, a person can walk but his gait would be disorganised. Midbrain encompasses brain above the pons and acts as a bridge between forebrain and Hind brain. It has two subdivisions called tectum and tegmentum. Tectum has a pair of structures called superior colliculi and inferior colliculi. Superior colliculi is roof and concerned with visual information while inferior colliculi is on the floor and deals with auditory information. Tegmentum lies below tectum. It has some important structures like rostral, end of reticular formation and nuclei controlling the activities of eye movements. Sensory impulses from lower parts to higher parts of brain and motor impulses from higher parts to lower parts of brain pass through it. Starting from medulla in the Hind brain and extending to midbrain and hypothalamus of forebrain, a net of fibers pass by and is called reticular formation. Since this structure regulates and controls the activities of sleep, arousal and attention it is also called reticular activating system. It has two subsystems. (i) ascending reticular system and (ii) descending reticular system. Ascending system sends sensory impulses to cerebral cortex while descending system receives motor impulses from brain and sends them to spinal cord. Destruction of this system sends an animal into sleep and may even into coma. It acts as filter as for example, when we are concentrating on some task we receive no other sensation except the ones on which we are focused. It happens because RAS filter away all other sensations and do not allow them to reach the brain. 21 Orientation to Psychology Now we will discuss about the most important part of the brain i.e. forebrain. This portion of brain regulates and controls all higher and complex activities of human beings e.g. thinking, reasoning, memory etc. Neuroscientists divide it into two parts – telencephalon and diencephalon. Telencepahlon includes cerebral hemispheres, limbic system and basal ganglia. Diencephalon includes Thalamus and Hypothalamus. The psychologists have paid much attention on the structure and functions of thalamus and hypothalamus and cerebral hemispheres because almost all the activities are controlled and regulated by these parts. Thalamus is an oval shaped structure located right above the midbrain and between the two hemispheres. Thalamus contains three types of sensory nucleir which receive sensory impulses relating to vision, hearing, pain, temperature, taste, and smell and sends them to appropriate parts of the cerebrum. Another type of nuclei receives nerve impulses from cerebellum, brain stem and reticular formation and sends them to cerebrum. Third type of nuclei receives impulses from within the thalamus and sends them to cerebrum. Hypothalamus is a small structure located below the thalamus. It is very important and functions to regulate and control – biological motives of hunger, thirst and sex. It also controls and regulates homeostatic mechanism of our body as for example, when we feel hot it causes us to sweat thereby reducing our body temperature and when we feel cold it causes us to shiver thereby raising our body temperature. Hypothalamus also regulates the activities of autonomic nervous system and endocrine gland. It regulates the functioning of pituitary gland which affects the functioning of all other glands. Hypothalamus plays an important role in the regulation and control of emotions like anger, fear and aggression. Basal ganglia include caudet nuclei, putamen, globus pallidus and some part of amygdala. It plays an important role in motor control. Destruction of this portion may lead to Parkinson’s disease. Limbic system has five main parts – olfactory bulb, septal area, hippocampus, amygdala and cingulate gyrus. Olfactory bulb receives smell sensations. Septal area, cingulated gyrus and amygdala play important role in the regulation of emotions. Hippcampus plays an important role in memory. The Cerebrum is the largest portion of the brain and is divided into two hemispheres by the longitudinal fissure. Both right and left hemispheres are composed of gray matter. In layman’s language it is said that larger the gray matter the more intelligent a person will be. The two hemispheres are connected through corpus callosum, a bundle of nerve fibers. Each hemisphere has two deep fissures known as fissure of Rolando and central sulcus or lateral fissure. These fissures together divide each hemisphere into four parts or lobes: Frontal lobe is located in front of the central sulcus and above the lateral fissure. It plays important role in motor activities and higher mental processes. It has motor cortex, Broca’s area and frontal association area. Parietal lobe is located behind central sulcus and above the sylvius fissure it is primarily responsible for bodily sensations and knowledge of direction. 22  Temporal lobe is located below central sulcus in the temple it has Wernicke’s Biological Basis of Behaviour area and temporal association area. Occipital lobe is located at the back of each hemisphere and it is the primary area for visual sensation. Self Assessment Questions (SAQ II) Briefly answer the following questions: 1) What is cerebrum?......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2) What is the function of Hypothalamus?......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3) Which part of our brain is called automatic machine and why?......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4) Where is brain the located?......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5) What is the role of Parietal lobe?......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2.3.2 Peripheral Nervous System This comprises of all those neurons which lie outside the brain and spinal cord and connect these two with receptors, effectors and glands. It is divided into two parts i.e. somatic and autonomic nervous system. 2.3.2.1 Somatic Nervous System It is primarily related to voluntary activities. Central nervous system sends impulses to voluntary muscles through somatic nervous system. It is further divided into cranial nerves and spinal nerves. 23 Orientation to Psychology Cranial nerves originate from the bony skull and are found in pairs of twelve nerves. These are motor, sensory and association nerves. Spinal nerves originate at regular intervals from the spinal cord and they are in 31 pairs and are divided into five parts: Table 2.1: Division of Spinal Nerves Name Number Position Servical 8 Neck Thoracic 12 Chest Lumbar 5 Coin/waist Sacral 5 End of spinal column Cocygeal 1 End of spinal column 2.3.2.2 Autonomic Nervous System This is rather important portion of peripheral nervous system. It is comprised of those neurons or nerve cells which regulate and control involuntary muscles, glands like kidneys, cardiac muscles, endocrine glands etc. Although connected with brain and spinal cord it acts in an independent manner. Autonomic nervous system is further subdivided into – sympathetic nervous system and parasympathetic nervous system. Sympathetic system is located in the thoracic and lumbar region of spinal cord and is therefore known as thoraciclumbar system. It acts in integrated manner. It prepares our body for emergency situations e.g. when faced with danger it activates adrenal gland and pancreas thereby increasing the quantity of blood sugar in blood and also increases the rate of metabolism. All these changes in the body give us extra energy to meet the emergency situation. Parasympathetic system is located in the cranial and sacral regions of the spinal cord hence called craniosacral system. It functions to restore our bodily processes to normalcy. In other words it is the opposite of sympathetic system. It lowers metabolic rate, heart beat and quantity of blood sugar in the blood. Although the two systems are antagonistic they tend to act in a coordinated manner e.g. in situations of fear or anger adrenal gland, pancreas are activated by the sympathetic system to generate more energy. The parasympathetic system suspends digestive activity and other functional systems so that energy freed from these is available for use to meet the emergency situation. Self Assessment Questions (SAQ III) State whether the statements are ‘True’ or ‘False’ 1) Sympathetic system is located in the cranial and sacral regions of the spinal cord. ( ) 2) The autonomic nervous system comprises of those neurons which are connected and regulate and control involuntary muscles. ( ) 3) The parasympathetic nervous system prepares our body for emergency situations. ( ) 24  Biological Basis of 4) Autonomic nervous system is divided into the sympathetic nervous system Behaviour and parasympathetic nervous system. ( ) 5) Spinal nerves originate at regular intervals from the spinal cord and they are in 31 pairs. ( ) 2.4 ROLE OF ENDOCRINE GLANDS Endocrine glands are a group of glands that release their chemical substance (known as hormones) directly into bloodstream. Fig. 2.4: The Major Glands of the Endocrine System Source: https://cnx.org Role of various endocrine glands in our body have been described in following table: Table 2.2: Major Endocrine Glands Endocrine Hormone Target Major Function of Gland Released Tissue/Organ Hormone Hypothalamus Hypothalamic Anterior Regulate anterior pituitary releasing pituitary hormone and inhibiting hormones Posterior Antidiuretic Kidneys Stimulates water Pituitary (ADH) reabsorption by kidneys Oxytocin Uterus, Stimulates uterine muscle mammary contractions and release of glands milk by mammary glands Anterior Thyroid Thyroid Stimulates thyroid Pituitary Stimulating (TSH) 25 Orientation to Psychology Adrenocorticotropic Adrenal cortex Stimulates adrenal cortex (ACTH) Gonadotropic Gonads Egg and sperm production, (FSH, LH) sex hormone production Prolactin (PRL) Mammary Milk production glands Growth (GH) Soft tissue, Cell division, protein bones synthesis and bone growth Thyroid Thyroxine (T4) All tissue Increase metabolic rate, andTriiodothyronie regulates growth and (T3) development Calcitonin Bones, kidneys Lowers blood calcium andintestine level Parathyroids Parathyroid (PTH) Bones, kidneys Raises blood calcium level andintestine Adrenal Glucocorticoids All tissue Raise blood gluclose level, Cortex (cortisol) stimulates breakdown of protein Mineralocorticoids Kidneys Reabsorb sodium and (aldosterone) excrete potassium Sex Hormones Gonads, skin, Stimulates reproductive muscles and organs and brings on sex bones characteristics Adrenal Epinephrine and Cardiac and Released in emergency Medulla norepinephrine other muscles situations, raises blood glucose level, “fight or flight” response Pancreas Insulin Liver, muscles, Lowers blood glucose adipose tissue levels, promotes formation of glycogen Glucagon Liver, muscles, Raises blood glucose adipose tissue levels Testes Androgens Gonads, skin, Stimulates male sex (testosterone) muscles and characteristics bone Ovaries Estrogen and Gonads, skin, Stimulates female sex progesterone muscles and characteristics bone Thymus Thymosins T lymphocytes Stimulates production and maturation of lymphocytes Pineal Gland Modified Brain Controls circadian and aminoacid circannual rhythms, possibly involved in maturation of sexual organs Source: https://www.saylor.org 26  Biological Basis of 2.5 LET US SUM UP Behaviour Now let us sum up this unit. We started this unit with the discussion on neuron, specialized cells responsible for transmitting nerve impulses. We discussed the structure of neurons and its classification based on function and structure. We also briefly talked about nerve impulse, phenomenon of transmitting signal from nerve to another. Then we moved on to discussing central nervous system and its division in length. Lastly, role of various endocrine glands were covered in this unit. 2.6 UNIT END QUESTIONS 1) Describe briefly different types of neurons. 2) What do you understand by nerve impulse? 3) Write a short note on three major parts of brain. 4) Differentiate between sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system. 5) What do you understand by nervous system? Describe its classification. 6) What is neuron? Draw a diagram of neuron and explain its parts. 7) What do you understand by endocrine glands? Write briefly major functions of any five endocrine glands. 2.7 GLOSSARY Axon : It is a long slender part of the neuron that extends from a portion of the cell body known as axon hillock. It is often covered by the myelin sheath and carries information from the cell body towards its distal ends known as terminal buttons. Neuron : The cells of the nervous system are known as neurons. Neurons receive and process information to and from the brain. Myelin sheath : It is an insulating cover that surrounds an axon with the layer of myelin (a mixture of protein and phospholipids). Peripheral nervous : It is responsible for carrying information to and system from the central nervous system to the whole body. Somatic nervous : This system of Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) system conducts all sensory and motor information to and from the Central Nervous Systems (CNS). Further, it is responsible for voluntary movement. Autonomic nervous : It is a part of the Peripheral Nervous System. It system helps to regulate the effectors like the cardiac muscles in the heart, smooth muscles on the skin, blood vessels and epithelial tissue in the glands. Endocrine glands : These are a group of glands that release their chemical substance (known as hormones) directly into the bloodstream. 27 Orientation to Psychology 2.8 ANSWERS TO SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS Self Assessment Question I 1) Yes 2) No 3) No 4) Yes 5) Yes Self Assessment Question II 1) The Cerebrum is largest portion of the brain & is divided into two hemispheres by the longitudinal fissure. Both right and left hemispheres are composed of gray matter. 2) Hypothalamus regulates and controls the biological motives of hunger, thirst and sex. 3) Spinal cord is called the automatic machine because all the motor information from brain first enters spinal cord and then is sent to different parts of body for action. Besides this, the spinal cord also functions as center of reflex actions. 4) Brain is located in the bony skull and is protected by three layers of tissues called meninges. 5) Parietal lobe is responsible for bodily sensations and knowledge of direction. Self Assessment Question III 1) False 2) True 3) False 4) True 5) True 2.9 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING Khosla, M. (Ed.) (2017). Physiological Psychology: An Introduction. Sage Texts,Delhi, India.ISBN 978-93-860-6211-6. Pinel, J. P. (2009). Biopsychology. Pearson education. Kalat, J. W. (2015). Biological Psychology. Nelson Education. Greene, S. (2013). Principles of Biopsychology. Psychology Press. Breedlove, S. M., Watson, N. V., & Rosenzweig, M. R. (2010). Biological Psychology (pp. 45-46). Sunderland: Sinauer Associates. Hubbard, J. (Ed.). (2012). The Peripheral Nervous System. Springer Science & 28 Business Media. The Endocrine System. Retrieved July 3, 2018, from https://www.saylor.org/ Biological Basis of Behaviour site/wp-content/uploads/2010/11/The-Endocrine-System.pdf Dubner, R. (Ed.). (2013). The Neural Basis of Oral and Facial Function. Springer Science & Business Media. Jean, A. (2001). Brain stem control of swallowing: neuronal network and cellular mechanisms. Physiological Reviews, 81(2), 929-969. Rinn, W. E. (1984). The neuropsychology of facial expression: a review of the neurological and psychological mechanisms for producing facial expressions. Psychological Bulletin, 95(1), 52. REFERENCES FOR IMAGES The Endocrine System (digital image). Retrieved July 15, 2018, from https:// cnx.org/contents/[email protected]:34oFmAxl@8/The-Endocrine-System Types of Neurons. Retrieved July 15, 2018, from https://commons.wikimedia.org/ wiki/File:Types_of_Neurons.jpg Neurons. Retrieved July 15, 2018, from https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File:Neuron.svg#filelinks 29 Orientation to Psychology UNIT 3 COGNITIVE PROCESSES: ATTENTION, PERCEPTION, LEARNING , MEMORY AND THINKING* Structure 3.0 Introduction 3.1 Objectives 3.2 Attention 3.3 Perception 3.3.1 Stages of Perception 3.4 Laws of Organization: Gestalt Principles 3.4.1 Figure-ground Relationship 3.4.2 Law of Proximity 3.4.3 Law of Similarity 3.4.4 Law of Continuity or Good Continuation 3.4.5 Law of Closure 3.4.6 Law of Common Fate 3.4.7 Law of Pragnaz 3.5 Learning 3.5.1 Theories of Learning 3.5.1.1 Classical Conditioning: Learning by Association 3.5.1.2 Operant Conditioning: Consequence Based Learning 3.5.1.3 Observational Learning 3.6 Memory 3.6.1. Models of Memory 3.6.1.1 The Traditional Model of Memory 3.6.1.2 The Levels-of-Processing Model 3.7 Thinking 3.8 The Process of Thinking: Mental Imagery, Concepts, and Propositions 3.8.1 Pictures in Your Mind: Mental Imagery 3.8.1.1 Concept 3.8.1.2 Propositions 3.9 Let Us Sum Up 3.10 Unit End Questions 3.11 Glossary 3.12 Answers to Self Assessment Questions (SAQ) 3.13 References and Suggested Readings 3.14 References for Images 30 * Contributed by Dr. Arti Singh, IGNOU  Cognitive Processes: 3.0 INTRODUCTION Attention, Perception, Learning, Memory, and Thinking To understand human behaviour, we need to understand the mental processes through which we acquire information and try to understand it. Now, the question is what are those processes through which we understand this world? There is no single process but a collection of processes that are responsible for giving meaning to this world which is known as cognitive processes. Thus, cognitive processes are those mental processes using which, we acquire information from the world and understand it. In this unit we are going to discuss five important cognitive processes namely: attention, perception, learning, memory and thinking. We will try to understand these processes and see how it affects our behaviour. 3.1 OBJECTIVES After finishing this unit, you would be able to: Know how the process of attention takes place; Understand the phenomenon of perception; Articulate different principles involved in organizing stimuli i.e., Gestalt principles; Understand the process of learning and related theories; Understand the concept and models of memory; and Appreciate the phenomenon of thinking. 3.2 ATTENTION Right now, as you are reading these lines, you are exercising attention. Often studied by cognitive psychologists, attention has been found to play vital role in every aspect of human behaviour. Ross (1951) has defined it as “the process of getting an object or thought clearly before the mind”. Whereas, according to William James, “attention is focusing of consciousness on a particular object. It implies withdrawal from some things in order to deal effectively with others. It is taking possession of one, out of several simultaneous objects or trains of thought by the mind, in clear and vivid form”. There are broadly four forms of attention: selective attention, divided attention, sustained attention, and executive attention. Selective attention When bombarded with numerous attention grabbing environmental factors or stimuli, our brain selectively focus on particular stimuli and block out other stimuli consciously. This term of attention is known as selective attention. Divided attention It refers to the ability to maintain attention on two or more tasks simultaneously. For example, texting while talking to someone. According to some psychologists it is the ability to multi-task. Executive attention This form of attention helps us in blocking out unimportant features of the environment and motivates us to attend only those features that are important of our goal accomplishment. 31 Orientation to Psychology Sustained attention This form of attention helps us in maintaining focus or concentration on one task for a prolonged period of time. 3.3 PERCEPTION Perception is a set of process, which helps us in understanding the world around us. Within a time frame we encounter numerous stimuli every second. Take a look around the room in which you are sitting right now. What can you see? Walls, the colour of the walls, fan, light, the sound of the fan, books kept in the racks and many more things. Your awareness about all those stimuli is the result of a higher mental process called “perception”. Perception helps us in interpreting our world and thus helps us in making an appropriate decision, from what dress to wear to how to cross the road. Therefore, perception is a process of selecting, organising and interpreting the sensory information based on previous experiences, other’s experiences, need or expectation. So broadly speaking, the process of perception involves three steps when it encounters stimuli viz. (i) selection, (ii) organization and, (iii) interpretation. These stages of the process of perception have been discussed in detail in the following section. 3.3.1 Stages of Perception This section will explain in details the stages involved in perception as well as the factors affecting these stages. Stage I: Selection The first stage of perception is “selection”. Since our brain has limited capacity, therefore, it cannot attend to all stimuli at a time. We unconsciously or consciously select some stimuli and ignore others. The selected stimulus becomes the “attended stimulus”. Stage II: Organization In the second stage of the process of perception, stimuli are arranged mentally in a meaningful pattern. This process occurs unconsciously. Gestalt psychologists have proposed many principles for organising stimuli. Such as, ‘figure-ground relationship’, ‘law of proximity’, ‘law of closure’ etc. It explains how humans naturally organize stimuli to make a meaningful pattern and thus interpretation. Stage III: Interpretation In this last stage, meaning is assigned to the organized stimuli. Interpretation of the stimuli is based on one’s experiences, expectations, needs, beliefs and other factors. Thus, this stage is subjective in nature and the same stimuli can be interpreted differently by different individuals. Fig. 3.1: Process of Perception 32  Cognitive Processes: 3.4 LAWS OF ORGANIZATION: GESTALT Attention, Perception, Learning, Memory, and PRINCIPLES Thinking In the early 20th century, three German psychologists Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Köhler and Kurt Koffka proposed new principles for explaining perception called as Gestalt principle. According to these psychologists, the process of perception does not involve perceiving an array of stimuli as an object but it involves our tendency to seek a form or pattern in it. The literal meaning of the word Gestalt is form or configuration. The basic premise of Gestalt psychology is that ‘whole is different from the sum of its parts’. Based on this basic premise, Gestalt psychologists proposed a number of principles or laws to explain the process of perceptual organisation i.e., how we perceive smaller units of stimuli as a whole, having a particular pattern. In the following section, let us discuss some important Gestalt laws of perceptual organisation but before doing so, can you find thirteen faces in the following picture? (Fig 3.2) Fig.3.2:The Forest Has Eyes by Bev Doolittle (1984) Source: http://www.greenwichworkshop.com 3.4.1 Figure-ground Relationship Now, let us look at the Gestalts differnt laws of perception: Can you see two different images in the picture given below (Fig. 3.3) If you focus one of the images reflects chess pieces while if you shift your focuse you can see two people standing face to face. This is nothing but the law of figure- ground relationship. Fig.3.3: An Example of Figure-ground Relationship Source: https://www.tes.com 33 Orientation to Psychology Therefore this principle states that we have a tendency to segregate our world in the form of figure and ground. Figure is that part of stimuli which has our focus of the visual field, whereas the ground is background. Figure has a definite shape and is better remembered whereas; background is shapeless and has no limits. Now let us we look at the Figure 3.2 what can we see ? Two people or two pieces of chess (two queens and one bishop)? When you focus on people, chess pieces disappears in the background and when you focus on the chess pieces, people become background. 3.4.2 Law of Proximity Fig. 3.4: The Gestalt Principle of Proximity Source: https://courses.lumenlearning.com The law of proximity states that in order to perceive stimuli meaningful, stimuli which are closer to each other are perceived by us as belonging to one group. Due to this reason, people tend to see following circles as cluster or group rather than individual circles (Fig. 3.4). Our brain tends to group large elements as one to make us interpret more easily. 3.4.3 Law of Similarity Fig.3.5: The Gestalt Principle of Similarity Source: https://www.verywellmind.com This principle states that stimuli similar to each other are grouped together. For instance, in the Figure 3.5, we tend to group circles based on its colours. In real life also, we use this principle extensively. For example, during a cricket match, we tend to group players based on the colour of their jersey. 34 3.4.4 Law of Continuity or Good Continuation Cognitive Processes: Attention, Perception, Learning, Memory, and Thinking Fig.3.6: The Gestalt Principle of Continuity Source: http://art.nmu.edu The law of continuity refers to our tendency to perceive figures in continuation rather than in parts. This principle is exhibited more in the perception of line. As can be seen in Figure 3.6 we generally perceive it as a line instead of separate circles. 3.4.5 Law of Closure Fig.3.7: The Gestalt Principle of Closure Source: https://www.logodesignlove.com Following its name, this law should not be confused with the law of proximity. This law states that we have a tendency to perceive stimuli as closed shapes even with some missing parts. (refer Fig. 3.7) 3.4.6 Law of Common Fate Fig.3.8: The Gestalt Principle of Common Fate Source: http://cdn.zmescience.com 35 Orientation to Psychology This principle states that stimuli moving in similar directions are perceived as belonging to same group, as shown in Figure 3.8. 3.4.7 Law of Pragnaz Fig.3.9: The Gestalt Principle of Pragnaz Source: https://www.interaction-design.org The word Prgnaz is German in origin, meaning “good figure”. This principle is also called as “law of good figure”. According to this principle, out of all possible ways of grouping stimuli, we tend to group stimuli in the simplest and stable shape. Thus, we can say that simpler forms are more quickly perceived by us (Fig. 39). Self Assessment Questions (SAQ I) Fill in the blanks: 1) The........................................... principle states that we tend to group stimuli in the simplest and stable shape. 2) In order to perceive stimuli,...................................... the stimuli which are closer to each other are perceived by us belonging to one group. 3).......................................... is that part of stimuli which has our focus of the visual field, whereas the ground is....................................... 4) The first stage of perception is................................................. 5) Interpretation of the stimuli is based on................................................... 3.5 LEARNING The term learning has been defined by psychologists in many ways. According to the most acceptable definition, it is a “relatively permanent change in behaviour (or behaviour potential) resulting from experience” (Baron, 2001). Three points of this definition require clarification. First, as written in definition ‘relatively permanent change’, it is important to mention here that any temporary change in behaviour can be termed as learning. Such as, feeling sleepy after taking drugs or heavy meals or feeling tried due to illness. Second, permanent change due to ageing or matur