Chapter 9: Psychological Perspectives on Criminality PDF

Chapter 9 Psychological Perspectives on Criminality by Marguerite Ternes...

Chapter 9 Psychological Perspectives on Criminality by Marguerite Ternes Saint Mary’s University Patricia A. Zapf John Jay College of Criminal Justice David N. Cox Simon Fraser University Nathalie C. Gagnon Kwantlen University College Ronald Roesch Simon Fraser University Slides Prepared by Stephen Schneider Saint Mary’s University Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 9-1 Learning Objectives Describe and critique different psychological theories used to explain criminal behaviour, including: psychoanalytic theory moral development theory Eysenck’s theory social learning theory operant conditioning theory Understand what is meant by the term “antisocial personality.” Describe the difference between Antisocial Personality Disorder and psychopathy. Describe current theories linking crime and mental illness. Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 9-2 Psychological Theories of Crime Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 9-3 Psychological Theories of Crime Examines criminality through theories of personality or learning that account for a person’s behaviour in a specific situation. Most theories entail one of two assumptions: 1. Assumption of offender deficit Something is psychologically wrong with the offender. 2. Assumption of discriminating traits Offenders differ from non-offenders, especially in impulsivity and aggression. Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 9-4 Psychological Theories of Crime Critiques of the psychological approach: There is little emphasis on positive characteristics of offenders. The focus is overwhelmingly on offender deficits, although there is a recent shift towards recognizing offender strengths. It ignores the importance of situational and environmental factors on individual behaviour However, recent research stresses situational and environmental factors. The “criminal vs. non-criminal” binary is not reliable. Criminal behaviour is, in fact, pervasive. Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 9-5 Psychological Theories of Crime Criminal vs. non-criminal binary Farrington: it is important to understand differences between offenders and non-offenders. Criminality is the outcome of different social and psychological risk factors. The motivation to commit delinquent acts arises from a desire for material goods or a need for excitement. Delinquent acts may also be influenced by psychological variables (for example, individuals’ learning history or beliefs regarding criminal behaviour). Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 9-6 Psychological Theories of Crime Community Psychology While the individual perspective is clearly the dominant one in psychology, there are other psychological perspectives, such as those of community psychology, that are quite closely akin to sociological perspectives. Such psychologists view social problems from “levels of analysis” perspective: 1. Individual level—social problems are defined as individual deficits 2. Small group level—social problems are created by group functioning deficits 3. Organizational level—organizations of society have not accomplished what they are supposed to 4. Institutional or community level—social problems are created by institutions Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 9-7 Psychological Theories of Crime Community Psychology Example for four levels: (addiction) 1. If the problem is defined at the first level, individuals will be examined to determine what psychological problems they have. 2. At the small-group level, the influence of peers, such as drug-abusing friends, can be viewed as influencing the individual’s behaviour 3. At the next level, organizations such as law enforcement agencies are seen as having insufficient resources to prevent or deter individuals from engaging in criminal behaviour. 4. Finally, if the problem is defined at the institutional level, it can be said that the problems individuals face are caused by the laws their society has created. Psychological Theories of Crime Haney (2002) Makes a strong case for a situational approach to understanding criminal behaviour Argues for less focus on defective properties of the individual Places more emphasis on situational pathologies or environmental stressors that may alter an offender’s psychological state Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 9-9 Psychoanalytic Theory These theories focus, for the most part, on individual- level variables and explanations. The remainder of this chapter will review psychological theories that can be directly related to understanding criminal behaviour. Psychoanalytic Theory Freud: Personality is composed of three forces Ego: directs the Id: biological impulses of the id Superego: drives and acts as a conscience reality tester Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 9-11 Psychoanalytic Theory Ego and superego (internal controls) develop through successful resolution of conflicts at each stage of development Crime results when the ego and superego are unable to control the primitive, aggressive, antisocial instincts of the id. Criminality is caused by a person’s failure to progress satisfactorily through the early stages of development. Superego is inadequately developed or deficient, and the individual is susceptible to antisocial behaviour Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 9-12 Psychoanalytic Theory Psychoanalytic theory is not seen as a rigorous explanation for criminal behaviour. The theory is untestable, Problems because it relies on unobservable underlying and constructs. limitation It is tautological—aggressive acts are the result of impulses, s: but the evidence for impulses is aggressive acts. Not all criminals suffer from guilt or anxiety. Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 9-13 Evolutionary Theory Seeks to understand human behaviour from a Darwinian perspective of natural selection. Refers to reproductive fitness variance to account for high rate of criminal offending among young men. Men commit more crime, particularly violent crime, than women, which evolutionary theory attributes to differences in reproductive strategies. Women's reproductive potential is limited by pregnancy and child-rearing, leading them to prioritize safety and stability, while men’s success depends on mating opportunities. Consequently, men engage in competitive and risk-taking behavior to attract partners, especially during adolescence and early adulthood. This explains the higher rates of criminal behavior in men and its peak during these formative years. Additionally, men often commit violent crimes against other men, further supporting this theory. Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 9-14 Evolutionary Theory Critiques of evolutionary theory include the following: It normalizes and excuses criminal behaviour. It is too deterministic, thus there is little we can do to prevent or treat it The explanations are hypothetical, given our lack of knowledge of early human behaviour. Theories of Moral Development Criminal behaviour can be understood by focusing on how we develop (or fail to develop) a sense of morality and responsibility. Jean Piaget (1932) studied children playing, and concluded that Moral reasoning was learned in stages, and Children go from egocentrism (because they lack empathy) to cooperation (by age 11 or 12). Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 9-16  Theories of Moral Development Kohlberg posited that There are several stages of moral development, and Everyone goes through them in order, but pace may vary and some get stuck. Preconventional: At this level, society’s morals and values are understood as “do’s” and “don’ts” and are associated with punishment. The preconventional person is one for whom roles and social expectations are something external to the self Conventional: He or she understands, accepts, and attempts to uphold the values and rules of society. For a conventional person, the self is identified with or has internalized the rules and expectations of others, especially those of authorities Postconventional: is the one at which customs are critically examined with regard to universal rights, duties, and moral principles. The postconventional person has differentiated his or herself from the rules and expectations of others and has defined his or her values by means of self-chosen principles. Few attain Copyright thisby level. © 2020 Top Hat 9-17 Table 9.1: Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 9-18 Theories of Moral Development Kohlberg: there should be an inverse Criticism of Kohlberg’s relationship between theory moral development and delinquency. Studies suggest that delinquents’ moral development is The theory is biased in favour of men, less advanced as care-oriented women seldom reach than that of non- postconventional level. His study was delinquents. about 84 males Research also supports the link between a lack of moral Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat development and 9-19 adult criminality. Eysenck’s Theory of Crime and Personality This theory explores how personality characteristics are related to criminal behaviour. The theory is based on principles of classical conditioning. Deviant behaviour is inherently reinforcing, so children will only refrain if punished. There is a need to pair deviance with pain or fear. This pain or fear will serve as a deterrent. Delinquents and criminals do not readily develop this conditioned response, either because of lack of exposure to effective conditioning practices by parents and others, or because they are less vulnerable to conditioning Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 9-20 Eysenck’s Theory of Crime and Personality The dimensions of personality include Extraversion (highly sociable, impulsive, and aggressive people.) vs. introversion, Neuroticism (anxiety, restlessness, and other emotional responses) vs. stability, Psychoticism (cold, impersonal, hostile, lacking in sympathy, unfriendly, untrustful, odd, etc) Extroverted, neurotic, and psychotic persons are more likely to be delinquent or criminal. Extroverts crave excitement, are impulsive, and have a weak conscience. Neurotic extroverts are difficult to condition positively. Psychotics have a propensity for violence. Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 9-21 Social Learning Theory The central concept is cognitive functioning: the ability to think and make choices. Modelling: Individuals can learn new behaviours through direct experience or by observing the behaviour of others. Bandura (1986) posited that aggression was learned from three sources: 1. Family (parents who are aggressive/abusive), 2. Subcultural influences (for example, violence learned in tough neighbourhoods from role models or peers), and 3. Symbolic modelling (for example, watching television violence). Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 9-22 Social Learning Theory Studies suggest a correlation between watching television violence and aggression. However, the causal direction in this relationship is unknown. Research suggests that watching TV violence desensitizes, or makes one more tolerant of it. Thomas et al. (1979): people showed less autonomic reactivity to real-life aggression if they had first watched a violent TV show. Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 9-23 Social Learning Theory Fear of punishment may also be a deterrent; this includes Legal sanction s Social sanction s Self- sanction s Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 9-24 Operant Conditioning This theory is based on work by B.F. Skinner. It posits that rewards and punishments can greatly influence behaviour. Operant Conditioning may be used to change antisocial behaviour of delinquents and criminals: Rewards reinforce a behaviour, and Punishment weakens a behaviour. A token economy is one example of a rewards-based treatment program for delinquent youth(For example, they can earn points for being at class on time, cleaning their bedroom, and engaging in other positive behaviours. Disruptive behaviour in the classroom, making aggressive statements or fighting, and being late for class can result in a loss of points) Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 9-25 Antisocial Personality Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 9-26 Antisocial Personality Antisocial Personality Disorder (APD) A key indicator of this disorder is a disregard for the rights of others, as well as impulsive, irresponsible, and aggressive behaviour. It begins in childhood with lying, stealing, fighting, etc., as signs. In adolescence, indicators can include early or aggressive sexual behaviour, drinking, and drug use. This continues to adulthood, though more extreme indications diminish after age 30. Between 15 and 25% of the prison inmate population in North America fit this category. Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 9-27 Antisocial Personality Hare (1991) developed the Psychopathy Checklist: It includes twenty traits and behaviours associated with psychopathy. It provides reliable and valid assessments of psychopathy. It is widely used for research and for making decisions in the mental health and criminal justice systems. The traits on the checklist are strong predictors of violence and recidivism in offenders and psychiatric patients. Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 9-28 Table 9.2: The Twenty Items of the Psychopathy Checklist Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 9-29 Antisocial Personality Psychopaths seem to be extroverts who do not learn fear responses and hence do not learn from negative experiences. There is likely to be a neuroanatomical basis for this, such as abnormalities in the prefrontal cortex. Heilbrun (1979): highly intelligent psychopaths are neither violent nor impulsive and attain a high level of education. This study points to the importance of viewing persons with the label of psychopath, or antisocial personality, in multidimensional ways. Not all such individuals should be expected to be violent or impulsive. Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 9-30 Antisocial Personality Babiak and Hare (2006): Psychopaths fit well into the corporate world. Social manipulation makes them seem charismatic in the hiring process. Like all predators, they like the action and rewards. Workplace psychopaths who are most often cited in the media are investment bankers. Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 9-31 Antisocial Personality The construct of psychopathy has been criticized for being too simple and for disregarding the dynamic nature of human behaviour However, some consider psychopathy to be “the single most important clinical construct in the criminal justice system” There is disagreement on whether this disorder can be effectively treated. Copyright © 2019 by Top Hat 9-32 Crime and Mental Illness Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 9-33 Crime and Mental Illness Some used to assume that all crime was a symptom of mental illness. However, most now reject this thinking. The prevalence of mental disorder among prison inmates is higher than the general population. Many inmates in Canadian prisons have substantial mental health needs (in particular substance use disorders). Many of these individuals have co-occurring disorders (for example, schizophrenia and substance abuse). Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 9-34 Crime and Mental Illness In recent years, there has been an increased involvement of those with mental illness in the CJS. Police are increasingly encountering mentally ill individuals. The deinstitutionalization of those with mental illness has contributed to this increase. Mentally ill persons are arrested more frequently than others, controlling for the type of crime. However, they are less likely to recidivate than offenders who do not have a history of mental illness. Police training to deal with the mentally ill varies across jurisdictions but is generally minimal. Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 9-35 Crime and Mental Illness Teplin (1984) conducted an analysis of police data: The presence of symptoms of mental illness affects the probability of arrest. Bonta, Law, & Hanson (1998): Mentally disordered offenders on average showed lower recidivism rates than other offenders. Borum (1996): Mental disorder is a risk factor for predicting violent recidivism. Desmarais et al., (2014) Most mentally disordered offenders are not violent and may have a decreased risk of general recidivism. Those with mental illness are more likely to be the victims. Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 9-36 Crime and Mental Illness Conclusion Theories of criminal behaviour that rely on models of mental illness will not account for the behaviour of most criminals. The mentally ill make up only a small proportion of criminal offenders. Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 9-37 Chapter Summary Psychological theories contribute to our understanding of criminal behaviour. There is a need to combine psychological and sociological approaches. Conger’s integration of social control and social learning theory is an example. Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 9-38 Summary Psychological theories of crime explain behaviour at the level of the individual. Some of these theories have been criticized for not placing enough emphasis on environmental factors. Certain psychological perspectives, such as community psychology, view social problems from a “level of analysis” perspective. Psychoanalytic theories suggest that criminal behaviour occurs when the ego and superego are unable to restrain the id. Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 9-39 Summary Evolutionary theory seeks to understand the adaptive function of criminal behaviours in terms of their survival and reproductive value. Kohlberg proposes a six-stage theory of moral development. This theory has been criticized for not considering the different approaches of males (more justice-oriented) and females (more care-oriented) to morality. Eysenck’s theory of crime and personality focuses on how three dimensions of personality are related to criminal behaviour. Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 9-40 Summary Social learning theory integrates sociology and psychology in explaining criminal behaviour. Family, subcultural influences, and symbolic modelling are sources from which an individual can learn aggressive behaviour. Deterrence can occur through legal sanction, social sanction, and self- sanction. Operant conditioning proposes that reinforcement and punishment can play a large part in strengthening or weakening criminal behaviours. Reinforcement and punishment play a large part in strengthening or weakening criminal behaviours. A token economy is one method that has been used to change existing behavioural interactions of individuals. Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 9-41 Summary APD refers to a cluster of traits that underlie a pervasive pattern of disregard for others’ rights. Psychopathy refers to a pattern of behavioural features that are similar to those associated with APD. Psychopaths also display other personality traits, such as grandiosity, superficial charm, lack of empathy, and a lack of remorse. Most criminals do not display any symptoms of mental illness. However, some studies estimate that between 16% and 67% have some kind of mental disorder, and between 5% and 12% have severe disorders. Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 9-42