Saint Kuriakose Elias Chavara Biography PDF

SAINT K URIAKOSE E LIAS C HAVARA Dharmaram Publications No. 459 SAINT K URIAKOSE E LIAS C HAVARA A. Mathias Mundadan CMI Dharmaram Publications Bangalore 560029, India & Chavara Central Secretariat Kochi 680 030 Kerala, India...

SAINT K URIAKOSE E LIAS C HAVARA Dharmaram Publications No. 459 SAINT K URIAKOSE E LIAS C HAVARA A. Mathias Mundadan CMI Dharmaram Publications Bangalore 560029, India & Chavara Central Secretariat Kochi 680 030 Kerala, India 2020 Saint Kuriakose Elias Chavara A. Mathias Mundadan CMI First Published 2008 Second Edition 2020 © 2020: Saint Chavara‟s 150th Death Anniversary Edition Chavara Central Secretariat, Kochi Cover: David, Smriti, Thrissur Layout: Chavara Central Secretariat, Kochi Printing: Viani Printings, Kochi ISBN: 978-81-944061-7-4 Price: Rs 700; US $ 60 Chavara Central Secretariat CMI Prior General‟s House Chavara Hills, Kakkanad Post Box 3105, Kochi 682 030 Kerala, India Tel: +91 484 2881802/3 Email: [email protected] Web: http://www.chavaralibrary.in/ & Dharmaram Publications Dharmaram College, Bangalore 560029, India Tel: +91-8041116137; 6111 Email: [email protected]; [email protected] Web: www.dharmarampublications.com Gratefully Dedicated to The CMI Congregation  CONTENTS Foreword to the Second Edition xi Fr Paul Achandy CMI, Prior General Foreword to the First Edition xv Fr Antony Kariyil CMI, Prior General Message xix His Beatitude Varkey Cardinal Vithayathil Message xxi Mother Edward, CMC Superior General Preface xxiii Abbreviations Xxvii Introduction 1 Chapter 1 31 Advent of a Great Sage Chapter 2 45 The Divine Call Chapter 3 61 Foundation of the CMI Congregation Chapter 4 109 Leadership of Chavara and Growth of the Congregation Chapter 5 135 An Ideal Religious and Superior Chapter 6 161 A Staunch Defender of the Unity of the Church x Saint Kuriakose Elias Chavara Chapter 7 203 In the Service of the Church and Society Chapter 8 253 Foundation of the CMC and CTC Congregations Chapter 9 311 Apostle of Christian Literature and Print Media Chapter 10 339 Journey to the Father’s Home Chapter 11 373 To the Honours of the Altar Chapter 12 387 Personality of Chavara Bibliography 455 Index 463  FOREWORD TO THE SECOND EDITION ur Lord is the Lord of history and He guides the salvation story, an ongoing God-driven project, through his O messengers, prophets, and shepherds. The story has its suspense, agony, and ecstasy. The journey has its thrill till the people reach the destination. Quite often the discomforting question is, „Whom shall I send?” (Isaiah 6:8). But to our surprise, right people after God‟s own heart come forward saying, “Here am I; send me!” Any prophetic call is the response to the cry of the people in agonies. It is well depicted in the call of Moses: “And now the cry of the Israelites has reached me, and I have seen the way the Egyptians are oppressing them. So, now, go. I am sending you to Pharaoh to bring my people the Israelites out of Egypt.” Saint Thomas Christians in the beginning of the nineteenth century were literally in crises and it was in need of a saviour. The socially stratified and caste-ridden society had no sense of equality and fraternity and the lower classes were severely affected by the system. The Church that had the great legacy of Saint Thomas could not make any breakthrough owing to internal divisions and domination of foreign missionaries. The children had no access to education; the women were restricted to the kitchen and enclosures; the poor, the sick, the old were badly affected by diseases and other social and economic discriminations. At this critical juncture, God chose Saint Kuriakose Elias Chavara and sent him to script a new momentum in all aspects of Church life. He was well trained by Malpan Thomas Palackal and was in the good company of Malpan Thomas Porukara. They found that a lot of good had not happened in the Kerala Church owing to the absence of a religious community. The rest is history and resurgence of the Church in crisis to a Church of blessings. Fr. A. Mathias Mundadan, an illustrious church historian and theologian, ventures systematically with his research rigour to understand the person, life, and mission of Saint Kuriakose Elias Chavara. He presents Chavara in the socio-religious and political context of the land with the critical eye of a researcher and historian. xii Saint Kuriakose Elias Chavara Being a person rooted so deep in the life and mission of the Church as a writer, teacher, and pastor, Fr. Mathias has a holistic and fact-based approach to the life of Saint Kuriakose Elias. In twelve chapters, Fr. Mathias has presented the person of Saint Chavara and his unique contributions to the Church in India and the society in general. The preparation for the publication of this second edition was taken up by Fr. Mathias and he did make many corrections in the text and the revised text was entrusted with Fr. George Thanchan. God‟s ways are mysterious. Both Fr. Mathias and Fr. George Thanchan left for their eternal reward rather unexpectedly. Fr. Saju Chackalackal took the bold step of publishing the second edition with needed corrections. I do want to place on record congratulations and appreciation to Fr. Saju for his dedication and hard work in realizing this project of publication of the second edition and it is all the more relevant while we enter the 150th death anniversary jubilee year of Saint Kuriakose Elias Chavara. Born in Kainakary in 1805 and ordained in 1829, Saint Kuriakose Elias is known for his holiness and Pope Francis canonized him a saint of the universal Church on 23 November 2014. All who were in association with him and his fellow religious found in him nothing short of a saint. He was so unhappy about the fact that there was not even a single canonized saint from among the Thomas Christians. His thrust on “self-sanctification and salvation of all” found its public approval and recognition in his canonization as a saint. More than all his revolutionary contributions, Chavara is primarily known for his holy life. We do not need any more witness to this except his statement at his deathbed: “I have never lost the baptismal grace received in baptism through the intercession of the Hoy Family.” His ardent love for Jesus and his Abba experience in Jesus and his devotion to the Blessed Sacrament, devotion to Mother Mary, Saint Joseph and essentially a life rooted in mystical prayer as evidenced in his Dhyanasallpangal, etc., testify to the greatness of his spiritualty. The one who confronted the Lord cannot be idle, but will ever be in the liberation of the people in crisis and agony. After his Tabor experience, he came down from the mount to encounter the people in their struggles. Being so much attached to the Church as a faithful son, his sole thought was to renew and build up the Church. He had his mantra sentire cum ecclesia (meaning, „feel with the Church‟), and he felt and thought with the Church and even fought for the Church for its legitimate rights. He initiated renewal and reforms in the spiritual, pastoral, educational, and social realms. The establishment of a religious community at Mannanam facilitated the  Foreword (2020) xiii momentum. In order to provide the right direction and leadership to the people, he established a seminary and revamped the seminary formation to develop priests of holiness and wholeness. While he worked for protecting the unity of the Church in times of crisis and schism, the priests trained by him made a greater impact in bringing back the people who left the fold. His contribution of education to all made revolutionary changes in the society and a sense of equality and fraternity found its origin and acceptance. Through the sister congregations, he made inroads into the life of girls and women and empowered them for an equal status in the society and to earn their living out of skilled jobs. The printing press and publications led to the enlightenment of the people. He had compassionate love for the poor, the sick, and the dying, which found its expressions in initiating the Upavisala and other social outreach initiatives. In nutshell, Saint Chavara was a man of all seasons and light on a lampstand that keeps burning like the burning bush. Through his writings he stands out as a mystic, a pastoral theologian, and a great poet. The society is still exploring the impact Saint Chavara has made on the space of the society through his spiritual, social, and educational initiatives. I gratefully salute Fr. Mathias Mundadan for this great work on Saint Kuriakose Elias Chavara and I am sure that he would intercede for us from heaven to make more rigorous study on Saint Kuriakose Elias Chavara during this 150th death anniversary year. Fr. George Thanchan left us without any warning and he did a great work in utmost silence. Through and through he was a silent worker and he never boasted of his contributions. CMI family is indebted to Fr. Saju Chackalackal for the pain he has taken to publish this work with his hard work and determination. May more and more people come to know more of Saint Chavara and get inspired by his life and mission! Feast of Saint Chavara Fr Paul Achandy CMI 3 January 2020 Prior General  FOREWORD TO THE FIRST EDITION am doubly delighted at the publication of this biography of Saint Kuriakose Elias Chavara. First of all it is a long overdue I response to the demand for an authentic biography of the Saint, and secondly it materializes the decision of the congregation‟s 35 th General Synaxis (2002) to publish a scientific and detailed study of the life and contributions of the founder. This work of Fr Mathias Mundadan CMI, a widely acclaimed Church historian, very well satisfies the public demand and the Synaxis‟ decision. Qualifying Chavara as a great sage, and counting him among the religious and socio-cultural reformers of Kerala in the nineteenth century, the author masterfully presents his advent as marking a new dawn in the State‟s history. More than a bare life-story of Chavara, the book is also a profile of the Church and society of Kerala in the same century. Hence it will certainly interest a wider readership than the Christian community. Saint Chavara generously responded to the divine call to the consecrated and priestly life, and single-mindedly pursued it against all odds. With a deep desire for the emergence of a religious congregation in our land, the three founding fathers, namely, Frs Thomas Palackal and Thomas Porukara and the young and dynamic Fr Kuriakose Elias Chavara, founded the CMI Congregation at Mannanam on 11 May 1831. Fr Chavara and Fr Leopold Beccaro OCD founded the CMC-CTC Congregations at Koonammavu on 13 February 1866. It was Fr Chavara who was the first one to make the religious profession when the CMI Congregation was canonically erected on 8 December 1855 and the first prior general appointed on the same day. As the Valiya Priyorachan („Great Prior‟) as he was called and the vicar general for the Syrian community, he proved to be an undisputed leader with personal integrity, practical wisdom and determination. A loyal and heroic son of the Church, he defended her against the Roccos schism and other divisive forces, and initiated and encouraged ecumenical programmes. In the great providence of God, Fr Chavara was raised to the honours of the altar and Pope xvi Saint Kuriakose Elias Chavara John Paul II, present in this land, called him Blessed on 8 February 1986, and was canonized on 23 November 2014. Many indeed are the undertakings that evinced his apostolic zeal and pastoral concern. With a view to reforming and revitalizing the Church he launched innovative projects in the fields of communication media, education and social action. For the spiritual renewal of the people of God he organized retreat programmes for the priests, religious and laity, brought in order and regularity in liturgical matters, set up seminaries and started popular devotions. Through insightful instruction he clearly outlined the principles and ideals of family life. He was a model religious and an ideal superior, mature and stern but equally compassionate and understanding. The present volume from the experienced pen of no less a scholar than Fr Mundadan treats all these aspects of Saint Chavara‟s life in detail and with historical accuracy. It also introduces and reviews his writings, prose as well as poetry. The final chapter stands out as a comprehensive study of Chavara‟s personality traits and spirituality, portraying him as a contemplative in action: a Karma-Yogi. The work is exhaustive and detailed, well-researched and documented. It is indeed a real achievement and solid contribution. The personality of Saint Chavara has come out very impressively, and so too the images of his associates. The history and nature of the congregation have been depicted in the right perspective and realistically. Many details so far unknown to the public have been brought to light, and many prevalent confusions and doubts have been clarified. My hearty thanks and congratulations to Fr Mundadan. I do admire his patience and hard work in accomplishing this task, a fitting tribute to the founder and a great service to the congregation and the society at large. As the author has acknowledged in the Preface, he was assisted by many others in collecting the data, preparing the bibliography, scrutinizing and proof-reading the text, providing creative suggestions, and printing and publishing the book. They include the general councillor and vicar general Fr Mathew Kaniamparampil CMI, the members of the committee appointed by the general council, and some others whom Fr Mundadan personally approached. To all of them the congregation as a whole and me personally are deeply indebted. One among them, Fr Lucas Vithuvattical CMI, deserves a special word of appreciation, who having been the postulator for Chavara‟s beatification, is an  Foreword (2008) xvii authority in matter‟s related to his life and activities. Fr Vithuvattical and his documentary work Positio remained a great source of information in writing this book. In conclusion I wish and pray for the Lord‟s favour on the author, his collaborators and the readers through the intercession of Saint Chavara. 1 March 2008 Fr Antony Kariyil CMI Prior General  MESSAGE OF HIS BEATITUDE Varkey Cardinal Vithayathil he new biography of Saint Kuriakose Elias Chavara by Fr Mathias Mundadan CMI is a very welcome work. Saint T Chavara is the pride and glory of the Syro-Malabar Church. He was very sad at the thought that his Church even after so many centuries of existence had not given birth to an officially declared saint. But because of him, who was the first of her children to be beatified, the same Church was soon able to make her own the words of Elizabeth: “The Lord … took away the disgrace I have endured among the people” (Lk 1:25). Great and many indeed are Saint Chavara‟s contributions, recalling which we should feel inspired and challenged. The foremost ones among them are the establishment of the CMI and CMC-CTC Congregations through which the Church of Kerala has ever since received grace upon grace. The appointment of Saint Chavara as the vicar general for the Syro-Malabar community was found to be the only available means to fight the Roccos schism that stormed the Syro-Malabar Church then. We should ever be grateful to Saint Chavara and his religious community at Mannanam for the decisive role they played to rout the same schism and restore unity in the Church. It is mostly thanks to Saint Chavara‟s tireless and committed efforts that the Syro- Malabar Church is what she is today. The practical wisdom and common sense with which he introduced reforms in the fields of liturgy, priestly training and pastoral ministry certainly provides us with unfailing guide-lines even today in similar endeavours. He also presented well-thought out proposals for regaining and maintaining his Church‟s autonomy and identity, which would even facilitate the reunion of the separated brethren. The humble but daring initiatives he took in the apostolate of education, communication media and social action eventually, enabled the Church to be an effective agent of social change and development leading to the establishment of God‟s kingdom. There are also to Saint Chavara‟s credit a considerable number of literary works which inspire and enlighten us today and will continue to do so for generations to come. In short, this xx Saint Kuriakose Elias Chavara new volume presenting the life and message of Saint Chavara should be considered a treasure in the hands of the Syro-Malabar Christians, which they should cherish and share with all others in the society. While congratulating the author Fr Mathias Mundadan, a well-known Church historian, and his collaborators, I wish and pray for a wide circulation and a large readership for the book. May it perpetuate the memory of Saint Chavara in the Church and the society, and bring glory to God and his blessings on the people. Mount Saint Thomas Varkey Cardinal Vithayathil CSSR Kakkanad, India Major Archbishop of Syro-Malabar 3 March 2008 Church & President, CBCI  MESSAGE OF Mother Edward CMC he new biography of Saint Kuriakose Chavara by Rev. Fr. A. Mathias Mundadan CMI, a well known historian of T Christianity in India, is a unique contribution of its kind. In this competent historical study Saint Chavara emerges as a person of exceptional calibre and varied dimensions. He is the founder of two religious communities, one for men and the other for women; he is at the same time a great reformer of the Church and society in Kerala. The author highlights Chavara‟s unique achievements with historical accuracy and insight. A few points he raises might appear to some a bit controversial but he presents them with adequate and unquestionable documentation. The main focus of the book, as the title indicates, is the person and the life of Saint Chavara. One important aspect of the undertakings of the Saint is the spread of education among the common masses as well as the marginalized sections of humanity for which he underwent untold struggles and trials. The high percentage of literacy, higher education and high social position the Malayalee women folk achieved may not have been realized without the earnest desire and committed effort of Saint Chavara. His deep concern for and great interest in building up a healthy humanity – well integrated in thoughts, feelings, passions and affections – come out clearly through the pages of the present book. The author has succeeded in presenting Chavara as an integral part the renascent Kerala culture and society, especially through the valuable literary output of the Saint, and as the path finder in social, educational and spiritual realms. Father Mundadan has rendered to the public a remarkable service in writing this book, and I am sure that the book will create a high spiritual resonance among its readers. Mount Carmel Generalate Mother Edward CMC 15 March 2008 Superior General  PREFACE he thirty-fifth General Synaxis (General Chapter) of the Carmelites of Mary Immaculate (CMI) held in 2002 decided T to publish an authentic biography of Kuriakose Elias Chavara, one of the three founders of the Congregation. The task of writing it was entrusted to me with assistance from Fr. Lucas Vithuvattical who, as the postulator of the cause of the canonization of Chavara, has become an authority on the life, activities and virtues of the Saint. Fr. Antony Kariyil CMI, Prior General, by his letter of 8 May 2002 gave me the mandate to plan and execute the project. It was Fr. Mathew Kaniamparampil, General Councillor and Vicar General, who gave further directions and counsels (see his letter dated 12 October 2002 and a number of periodical communications thereafter). I considered it a sacred duty bestowed upon me by the Congregation and started working on the project from the close of 2002. After the necessary consultations and discussions the Vicar General himself prepared an elaborate preliminary scheme. A tentative list of topics to be included in the biography was drawn up. The topics were assigned to a team of resource persons (see the names in the „Introduction‟ of the book). The original scheme was revised later on. A bibliography was also prepared under the supervision of the Vicar General. Most of the persons assigned to write on different topics prepared their drafts which were handed over to me. In the meantime, a few meetings were held together with the resource persons at the then Prior General‟s House, Karickamury, Ernakulam. In the beginning, it was thought that the work could be rather easy with the collaboration of the resource persons. But soon we realized that it was not that simple. The periodical meetings discussed various aspects of the project. That continued till the middle of 2003. The teamwork went thus far. The papers prepared by the resource persons are of different quality and standard. Finally, the writing of the biography was left to me. I was free to adopt whatever was relevant in the drafts submitted and do original research and compose the work. xxiv Saint Kuriakose Elias Chavara The plan prepared in the beginning was found to be too vast. It needed to be curtailed and reorganized. The drafts submitted, as mentioned above, had their limitations. They were helpful but had to be reworked not only checking accuracy but adding a good deal of fresh matter collected through my personal research and study. Naturally, all this took a longer time than expected to complete. It also needed a lot of patient work and close attention. The readers will understand why the publication was delayed so far. I gratefully acknowledge and deeply appreciate the help received from various persons. I have mentioned the names of these persons in the „Introduction‟. Once again I thank them. I should thank two persons in a special way. Fr. Sebastian Poonolly carefully went through my draft biography and masterfully improved the language. Besides, with the good knowledge and insight he has acquired through reading and study on the person of Chavara and his contributions has given me very good suggestions regarding the matter. Fr. Thomas Kochumuttom minutely scrutinized the draft and provided very valuable proposals for improvement. The suggestions and proposals of both of these scholars were very helpful in the final revision of the draft. I also remember with gratitude Frs. John Gallus Cheruparampil, Jose Frank Chakkalackal, and particularly Syrus Mannanal, who carefully read the manuscript at the instance of the authorities and gave their valuable suggestion to make the necessary corrections and to improve the text. I am deeply grateful to Fr. Antony Kariyil, our Prior General and his Councillors for the trust they placed in me and for the continuous support and encouragement they gave me. Fr. Mathew Kaniamparampil took keen interest in the project and was ever prompt in giving me all help and good counsel. I express my deep appreciation of his services. I will be failing in my duty if I do not gratefully remember His Beatitude Cardinal Varkey Vithayathil, our Major Archbishop, who was kind enough to give a very beautiful and significant message to adorn this book. So too I deeply appreciate the splendid foreword with which Fr. Antony Kariyil, our dear Prior General, has endowed this work. I offer my warm thanks to Mother Edward, Superior General of the Congregation of the Mother of Carmel (CMC), which Saint Chavara founded, for her excellent message. The invaluable services I received from Fr. Antony Madavanakkad in editing the final text and in laying out the book need to be gratefully acknowledged.  Preface xxv I am also grateful to Mary Jolly Sebastian and other Jeevass Kendram staff who did the whole computer work for the draft. Thanks to the printers Anaswara Offset Print Ltd., especially to V. A. Mathew, its director who has done a fine work in getting this book beautifully laid out and artistically produced. I am immensely happy to present to the public this modest biography, with all its limitations and shortcomings, of our holy founding father Kuriakose Elias Chavara of the Holy Family, this account of his saintly person, his lofty vision, and his valuable contribution to the Church of India. 3 January 2008 A. Mathias Mundadan CMI Feast of Saint Chavara Acharya Palackal Jeevass Kendram, Aluva  ABBREVIATIONS ACEO = Archivium Congregationis pro Ecclesiis Orientalibus ACMCG = Archives of CMC Generalate AGOCD = Archivium Generale OCD APF = Archivium Congregationis de Propaganda Fide ASJM = Archives of St Joseph Monastery (Mannanam) ASJVB = Archives of St Joseph‟s Vidya Bhavan (CTC Edappally) AST = Archives of St Teresa‟s (Convent, Koonammavu) CE = Christian era (AD) CKC = Chronicle of Koonammavu Convent CMC = Congregation of the Mother of Carmel CMI = Carmelites of Mary Immaculate CTC = Congregations of the Teresian Carmelites CWC = Complete Works of Chavara (Eighty-one) ‟81 = CWC Vol. I Malayalam, published in 1981 K.E. = Kollam (Malayalam) Era (Ninety) ‟90 = CWC Vol. I English, published in 1990 OCD = Ordinis Carmelitarum Discalceatorum PO = Processus Ordinarius Positio = Positio super Introductione Causae et Virtutibus… Stāpāka Pitākkanmar = Ka. Ni. Mu. Sabhayude Stāpaka Pitākkanmār  INTRODUCTION his is a biography of Saint Kuriakose Chavara. He was born in central Kerala in the beginning of the nineteenth century T (1805) and died late that century (1871). His malpan (seminary rector and life long guide) Thomas Palackal, who played a decisive role in Chavara‟s education and spiritual- pastoral development, was born at the close of the eighteenth century, sometime between 1780 and 1785. Thomas Porukara, whose influence on Chavara was significant, was born in the beginning of the nineteenth century (1800). It is, hence, very important to have an overall understanding of the physical, political, socio-cultural and religious features obtaining in Kerala from late eighteenth century to late ninetenth century. It is essential for understanding the person, life and mission of Chavara. In this introductory section of the book we shall try first to delineate these features. It will be followed by an overall view of the matter covered in the book. Then we will have a look into the various biographies so far written and some published. A brief description of other main sources we have used for writing this account will follow. Finally, a word about our methodology will be said. India and Kerala from the Late Eighteenth Century to the Late Nineteenth Century This period saw great changes in the world, especially in the West, in India and in Kerala. In Europe the most important event was Rationalism and Liberalism climaxing in the French Revolution in the last decade of the eighteenth century. This was followed in the nineteenth century by a reaction, which is often called the „Romanticist‟ movement, highlighting the medieval thinking and ideology. This gave to the Church in Europe, which had seen the nadir at the time of the liberal revolution, a new lease of life and vigour. Anti-colonial movements, which perhaps had their beginning in the United States of America (1773: „Boston Tea Party‟), began to influence other parts of the world. Perhaps signs of these movements in India may be seen in the fights of the Marathas and the Mysore 2 Saint Kuriakose Elias Chavara wars. In Kerala itself such uprisings as those of the Pazhassi Raja, Kurichias, Velu Tampi, Paliath Achan were symptoms of anti- colonial feelings and desire for independence. But none of these movements succeeded; they only helped the British to further consolidate their power. A change initiated from the time of the Sepoy Revolt in 1857 and the Hindu /Indian Renaissance set in motion the national movement which culminated in Indian Independence in 1947. Kerala itself witnessed a new era of peace and progress, resulting in a renaissance of its own. The restoration process in the Western Church in the wake of the „Romanticist‟ movement resulted in a new era of evangelization and the Indian Church stood to profit by it. After a period of stagnation a new mission thrust began to prevail. The St Thomas Christians, who already split in the seventeeth century in the process of their struggle for autonomy, were divided into further groups. The Latin Rite Christians, although suffered some set-back under Saktan Tampuran in Kochi, continued to prosper. The Country Kerala of the nineteenth century stretched from Kanyakumari (Cape Comorin) in the extreme south about 580 kms up to Gokarnam in the north. Situated between 74 to 78 longitudes and 8 to 13 latitudes, it is bound in the east by the Western Ghats and by the Arabian Sea in the west. The highest peak of the Ghat is Anamudi in Kottayam District, and rises to a height of 2742 metres. Other mountains range between 1000 and 2600 metres. The narrow stretch of land between the Ghats and the Arabian Sea is considered „a gift of the sea‟, which is symbolized in the legend of Parasurama. Perhaps the mountains also played a role in its formation. The land, once under sea, might have been thrown up from the sea as a result of the operation of volcanic or seismological factors. The numerous rivers, which have their sources in the Western Ghats, might have also brought down in their course large quantities of silt and mud, while ocean currents might have deposited immense quantities of sand on the shore. A vast stretch of land area might have thus come into existence by the steady accumulation of silt and sand. This land was called from ancient times by a name, which eventually took the form „Kerala‟, probably a Sanskritized version of Keralam or Cheralam. This word may mean chera (sand) and alam (region), or cher/chernta (added) and alam (land) indicating perhaps the land, which was added on to the already existing mountainous or hilly country. The Arab navigators called this hilly country „Male‟, which in later centuries assumed Arabic  Introduction 3 equivalents like „Malibar‟, „Manibar‟, etc. In Malayalam the equivalents are „Malanadu‟ or „Malavaram‟ or „Malayalam‟, meaning the hill country. The Portuguese called it Serra also meaning hill country. The language which developed as a separate language from Tamil was perhaps called „Keralabasha‟, which in course of time became „Malayalam‟, Malayma‟, etc. Kerala‟s unique geographical features – undulating mountains and hills, lakes and back waters, large and small rivers, abundant water resources – all make the land fertile and exuberant in vegetation. The forests, with green foliage and luxuriant growth of grass, plantations of coffee, tea, rubber and pepper, abundance of medicinal and exotic plants and trees, rich fauna and flora, paddy fields and coconut groves, the long coastal line studded with ports and beaches – all make the country a great attraction for travellers and traders, rightly called „God‟s Own Country‟. It has been and continues to be a haven for tourists, every year their number multiplying. While River Periyar, with Kalady the place of Adi Sankara and the famous Christian pilgrim centre Malayattoor on its lower banks, discharges its waters in the northern section of the Vembanad Lake. River Pampa, on whose upper bank is situated the famous Sabarimala Shrine of Sasthav or Ayyappa, discharges its waters in various streams at the southern end of the same lake. It is the conjunction of Pampa and Vembanad Lake that has created one of the most scenic regions, Kuttanad, which has been acclaimed as the Venice of the East. It is here that Chavara was born and brought up. The Eighteenth to the Nineteenth Century India The Portuguese, who started the colonial movement from the close of the fifteenth century, were replaced by other powers from mid- seventeenth century. The Dutch by degrees drew the Portuguese away from most of their possessions. The French, who soon followed, established their trade centres in South India, though had only Mahe as their possession in Kerala. From the end of the seventeenth century the English began to make their presence felt in several places. Their hegemony became a reality in India by the last decades of the eighteenth century. After the Sepoy Revolt of 1857 the rule of the East India Company, established by Queen Elizabeth in 1660, was terminated in 1858 and the British Crown took direct charge of the administration of British affairs in India. In 1877 Queen Victoria was proclaimed Empress of India. By this time Indian Renaissance had produced the national movement. Actually Indian Renaissance had its beginning already 4 Saint Kuriakose Elias Chavara before the Sepoy Revolt. The sleeping giant that was India was being slowly awakened by the various challenges from the West. Besides the ever-present colonialism, English education imparted by both missionary and secular agents, and the newly started missionary journalism, threatened Hindu religion and society in the nineteenth century. The result of liberal English education imparted by both missionary and secular agents was the creation of a group of radical young men in the Hindu fold. The missionary journalism pointed out many social abuses such as sati (widow burning), child marriage, etc. It awakened the social conscience of the Indians. This already put into motion a reform movement and the founding of the Brahma Samaj (1828). The period of fifty years following the revolt of 1857 was characterized by the rapid growth of national consciousness among the Indians which resulted in the struggle for political freedom and its achievement in 1947. Political subjugation and the resulting misery and humiliation led the educated Indians to search for „self-identity‟ in India‟s past history. Ancient literature, philosophy, science, law, art and monuments which had been buried in oblivion for years were raised to life. In this effort they were greatly helped by the „Oriental‟ scholars from the West. The rediscovery of India‟s past cultural heritage gave them a sense of pride in their own nation and this provided a powerful incentive to the growth of nationalism. Thus the ground was prepared for political agitation against the colonial rule. The Indian National Congress, which was organized in 1885 by the educated, politically liberal middle-class, became a mass-based organization, with Mahatma Gandhi assuming its leadership (see Mundadan 2003: 175f.). Kerala in the Eighteenth to the Nineteenth Centuries1 The Dutch who wrested from the Portuguese most trade centres were driven out from Thiruvithamcore by Marthanda Varma (1729-1758) with the battle fought in Kolachel in 1741. Their hold on Kochi ended in 1795, in which year the English forced them to surrender. The rajas of both the states entered into treaties with the British and allowed the latter to exercise sovereignty on both. The first treaty signed by Thiruvithamcore was in 1723 under Rama Varma of Venad. It was actually signed by the heir apparent Marthanda Varma. The state entered into a fresh treaty in 1775 under Kartika Thirunal Rama Varma, popularly known as Dharma Raja (1758-1805). In 1795 another treaty was concluded, with which Thiruvithamcore accepted 1 For this account we have relied mainly on Sreethara Menon 1967: 307ff.  Introduction 5 British supremacy. This was further strengthened by yet another treaty in 1805. Sreethara Menon says that this treaty, which was negotiated by Velu Thampi Dalawa, resulted in the loss of the political freedom of Thiruvithamcore. Already Col. Macaulay had been appointed British Resident of Thiruvithamcore. By a treaty between the English and the Raja of Kochi in 1791 the latter became a vassal of the English. Though these treaties curtailed the freedom of both states, they flourished under the strong protection of the colonial power. The presence of the British in Malabar (north Kerala) started by their building a factory or trade centre at Thalassery in 1683 or between 1694 and 1695. By 1730 they obtained the monopoly of trade in Dharmapatanam, and during the Canarese War (1732-1736) the exclusive possession of Dharmapatanam Island. By 1752 Thalassery was brought under their control. After the Mysorean interlude (Hyder Ali 1766-1782, Tippu 1783-792), by the treaty of Srirengapatanam (1792) the whole of Kerala came under the British supremacy. The revolts of the heroic Pazhassi Raja in Malabar, Velu Thampi and Paliath Achan in Thiruvithamcore and Kochi, respectively, were suppressed by the British arms. Pazhassi Raja (shot dead in 1805) and Velu Thampi (committed suicide in 1809) are considered by patriots, martyrs for freedom. In 1800 Malabar became part of the British-ruled Madras Presidency and was effectively administered. The tone of the administration of Kerala in the nineteenth century was set by the British in Malabar, that of Thiruvithamcore by Marthanda Varma (1729-1758) and Dharma Raja (1758-1798), and that of Kochi by Rama Varma popularly known as Saktan Tampuran (1790-1805). Marthanda Varma having entered into friendly treaty with the British and keeping good relations with Kochi successfully suppressed the feudal forces (the Pillamar, the Madampikal and the Yogakar), annexed one by one the neighbouring petty states and principalities like Attingal, Kollam, Kottarakara, Kayamkulam, Ampalapuzha, Karapuram, Thekkumkur, Vadakkumkur, Purakad, Punjar, etc. Kunnathunad, North Parur and Alangad became part of Thiruvithamcore under Dharma Raja. Pantalam and Edappally were annexed in the 1820s. Marthanda Varma thus laid the foundation for a strong and centralized monarchy. He brought in several innovative programmes for the betterment of finances, strengthened the military force and reorganized the administrative system. Dharma Raja (1758-1798) who had his training under his illustrious uncle, continued the latter‟s policies. He consolidated the territorial gains made by Marthanda Varma and conferred the benefits 6 Saint Kuriakose Elias Chavara of a settled administration on his subjects, who acknowledged this by calling him „Dharma Raja‟. He patronized learning and arts and maintained good relations with Kochi and Kozhikode rulers, besides obtaining the benign protection of the British. With the help of such distinguished statesmen like Ayyappan Marthanda Pillai and Raja Keshava Das, he further streamlined the administration. What Marthanda Varma and Dharma Raja did for Thiruvithamcore in the eighteenth century, Saktan Tampuran did for Kochi at the turn of the nineteenth century. Saktan Tampuran generally followed a strong and enlightened administrative policy. A negative remark about him was his harsh and cruel treatment towards the Konkanis and the Latin Christians. He may have had his reasons for it. The Latin Christians who had enjoyed certain privileges and rights under the Portuguese and the Dutch were harassed by the ruler in all possible ways (see Thayyil 2003: 216f.). However, his policy towards the St Thomas Christians offered a contrast. While he deprived the Latin Christians of their land and properties and even expelled many from the kingdom, he gave the St Thomas Christians lands and settled them in the heart of important towns like Thrissur, Chalakudy, Kunnamkulam, Irinjalakuda, Tripunithura, etc. with an eye for promotion of trade. It may be interesting to note that it was during the reign of Dharma Raja, Malpan Thomas Palackal was born and that the birth of Saint Chavara took place in the year when Saktan Tampuran‟s reign came to an end (1805). Here mention may be made about the rulers and administrators of Thiruvithamcore, Kochi and Malabar. In Thiruvithamcore Balarama Varma, a rather weak person, followed Dharma Raja in 1798 and ruled till 1810. Under his reign Velu Thampi who served Thiruvithamcore as chief minister (dalawa) from 1850 with the approval the British Resident Col. Macaulay, dismissed the triumvirate or partnership of three ministers, Jayanthan Sankaran Nampoori, Sankara Narayana Chetti and Mathu Tharakan, which had been allegedly a triumvirate of “ignorance, profligacy and rapacity,” and introduced various reforms. The dalawa soon rose in rebellion against the English. He was overwhelmed by the raja with the help of the British and he committed suicide in 1809. He was followed by Ummini Tampi as dalawa. Rani Gouri Lakshmi Bai (1810-1815), ably helped by Col. Munro, the new resident who was also diwan or chief minister (till 1814) introduced several progressive measures. The reign of Rani Parvati Bai (1815-1829) is considered an epoch of liberal administration. She received the assistance of Col. Munro till 1818 in which year he laid  Introduction 7 down his office of resident. During these years measures were taken to ensure social freedom and civil equality. Christian missionaries were given all facilities, such as rent free land, free timber, to promote their mission. The London Missionary Society (LMS) at Nagercoil established themselves on a firm footing in 1816 under her patronage, and the Church Missionary Society (CMS) at Alapuzha and Kottayam. The latter was given a tract of land in Kallada in Kollam District („Munro Island‟) for the specific purpose of promoting education among the Syrians. Swati Tirunal‟s reign (1822-1847) is called the „golden age‟ in the history of Thiruvithamcore. The Raja, himself a great scholar and multi-linguist, musician and musical composer of rare talents, encouraged fine arts and education. An English school (Raja‟s Free School) was established at Thiruvananthapuram and district schools in 1836. There are many other achievements to his credit: Trivandrum Observatory (1836), the Charity Hospital, Departments of Engineering and Irrigation, the census of 1836, review survey of 1837. He earned the title „Garbha Sriman‟, a sovereign from his birth. Utradam Thirunal Marthanda Varma‟s reign (1847-1860) is noted for two proclamations: the first in 1853 emancipated all future children of government slaves and laid down liberal regulations for their all- round progress; the second in 1859 lifted all restrictions on upper clothes of Shanar women. Besides he opened a school for girls in Thiruvananthapuram (1859) and prizes were instituted for students of the Raja‟s Free School. The first post office was opened in 1857 and a factory started functioning (1859), both at Alapuzha. Utradam Tirunal‟s successor Ayilyam Tirunal (1860-1880) continued the progressive policies. He was helped by the well known Diwan T. Madhava Rao (1859-1873) followed by Diwan Seshagiri Sastri (1872-1877) and Diwan Nanu Pillai from 1877. Sirkar anchals (state postal service) were thrown open to the public in 1861, a full- fledged arts college was established at Thiruvananthapuram (1866), a number of English, Malayalam and Tamil schools were opened all over the state. Hospitals were established in select centres. In the capital itself a large civil hospital and a lunatic asylum were opened. Special attention was given to communication and travel including one of the Varkala tunnels. Besides many public buildings came up in the capital (e.g., the main building of the present University College) as well as in other places. In recognition of the all-round progress Thiruvithamcore made, the title of „Maharaja‟ was conferred on its ruler in 1866. The reign of Rama Varma Visakham Tirunal was rather short (1880-1885). His successor Mulam Tirunal ruled the State for 8 Saint Kuriakose Elias Chavara quite a long time (1885-1924) and contributed significantly to its progress in various fields, especially in that of education. He gave all encouragement to private agencies. The rulers of Kochi were not as distinguished as their counterparts in Thiruvithamcore. But the diwans were exceptionally competent persons. Col. Munro heads the list (1812-1818). The reforms he introduced in Kochi bore close resemblance to those he introduced in Thiruvithamcore. Those who followed Munro, except a few, were talented men: Nanjappayya (1815-1825), Venkatasubhayya (1835- 1840), Sankar Warrier (1840-1856), Sankunni Menon (1860-1879), Govinda Menon (1879-1889) and others. The progress Kochi made in the nineteenth century owed much to these ministers. The fact that Kochi was placed under the direct care of Madras Presidency contributed to its progress. However, a few agitations took place in Kochi, mostly directed against the diwans: the one against Diwan Edama Sankara Menon in 1834 and another against Diwan Venkta Rao (1856-1860). Both of them were forced to retire at the intervention of the Governor of Madras. Owing to difference of opinion with the British paramountcy Raja Rama Varma (1890-1914) abdicated. British Malabar became part of Madras Presidency in 1800 and it was ably administered by a principal collector assisted by nine subordinate collectors. The nineteenth century Kerala prospered in the comparative peace and efficient administration that prevailed in the two native states and British Malabar. Still the fact that it was under a colonial regime created at least in the subconscious a restlessness, which came out into the open only in the next century. Social Awakening in Kerala2 Political uprisings against the British and the native rulers who supported them came to an end with the martyrdom of Pazhassi Raja in 1805 and of Velu Tampi in 1809. But the social order needed a radical change. This change was brought about by a series of reforms initiated by the liberal impulses found in the British administration and in the wake of a series of popular agitations and movements, such as the Channar or Shanar Agitation, those which were led by Chattambi Swamikal (1854-1924), Sri Narayana Guru (1856-1928) and Ayyankali (1866-1941) and the communal organizations which ensued in the twentieth century such as SNDP (1903), NSS (1914) and „Sadhu Jana Paripalana Yogam‟(1907). 2 For details, see Sreethara Menon 1967: 355ff.  Introduction 9 Kerala society till late nineteenth century was not based on the principles of social freedom and equality. Its chief characteristic was the deep chasm which separated the high castes from the low castes. In spite of the centralization of authority in the hands of the king in Thiruvithamcore and Kochi and the assumption of direct administration by the English East India Company in Malabar, the upper castes like the brahmins, the kshatriyas and the nayars continued to enjoy several privileges and immunities. They constituted the land-owning class and they freely oppressed the tenant class. The law that prevailed in the land was not egalitarian. The penal code was extremely severe as far as the lower castes were concerned. Slavery in the most primitive form prevailed in the land even in the beginning of the nineteenth century. There were a series of iniquitous taxes and cesses, which imposed a heavy burden on the under-privileged sections of the society. Consequently, the poor became poorer still. Untouchability and inapproachability and practice of pollution made their life miserable. It is against this grim context one has to evaluate the contribution of the British enlightened approach and the emancipative and educative programmes of the missionaries. The native rulers were powerfully influenced by the liberal impulses transmitted by British administrators and Christian missionaries. With the spread of education and liberal ideas in the early nineteenth century members of the backward communities became increasingly conscious of the discrimination and grew restive. Naturally, a number of social and socio-religious movements appeared on the scene. Perhaps the first of such movements was the Channar/Shanar Agitation in south Thiruvithamcore. As in other parts of Kerala the low caste women were prohibited to cover the upper parts of their bodies. The Shanars who were enlightened under missionary influence rose against this practice. During the diwanship of Col. Munro an order was issued permitting the Shanar women who had converted to Christianity to cover their bodies with jackets. Soon conflict arose between the Shanars and traditional Hindu high castes. The agitation ended only in 1859 with a royal proclamation abolishing all restrictions in the matter of covering the upper parts of Shanar women. Among the socio-religious movements the one started by Chattambi Swamikal (d. 1924) comes first. He was a nayar reformist who revolted against the existing social order, in which the brahmins enjoyed a monopolistic position. Though he worked in close collaboration with Sri Narayana Guru (d. 1928), his main concern 10 Saint Kuriakose Elias Chavara was for the social and religious regeneration of the nayars. Narayana Guru, an ezhava by caste, also revolted against brahmin domination and campaigned for the mitigation of the rigours of caste discrimination. He consecrated shrines in several parts of Kerala for the use of the ezhavas, but permitted pulayas and other low castes to worship in these shrines. The ezhavas themselves officiated in the shrines. This and many social reforms he introduced among the ezhavas gave a boost to that community to emerge as a decisive factor in Kerala society and politics. The reforms of Chattambi Swamikal and Narayana Guru were carried forward by the organisations, NSS and SNDP. Ayyankali (d. 1941) a pulaya by caste gave leadership to the movement started by the socially discriminated pulayas and other depressed classes for their social advancement. Taking inspiration from Sri Narayana Swami and the activities of SNDP, Ayyankali started organizing the harijans and agitating for rights that had so far been denied to them. In 1907 he founded the Sadhu Jana Paripalana Yogam („Convention for the Protection of the Poor‟). In recognition of his services to the harijans he was nominated member of Sri Mulam Praja Sabha (People‟s Assembly) of Thiruvithamcore. It was the dedicated work of these leaders which effected the total emancipation of the lower classes of the Hindu fold. The complete eradication of untouchability and temple entry for harijan, etc. owe greatly to them. Vakkam Abdul Khadar Maulavi (1873-1932) did a similar service for the uplift of the Muslim community. In the nineteenth century both in Thiruvithamcore and Kochi various movements arose demanding popular rule. British Malabar too had to face in the nineteenth century a phase of insolent disturbances unleashed by a series of revolts by the Muslims, known as „Mappila (Muslim) Lahala‟. The common feature of these revolts was that a mappila or group of mappilas would murder Hindu janmis (land lords) and desecrate Hindu temples. Despite various measures, both punitive and palliative, taken by the government, despite the passing of the Tenants Improvement Act (1900), factors such as poverty, agrarian grievances and religious bigotry helped to keep the spirit of discontent and defiance till the beginning of the twentieth century. Cultural Kerala A brief survey of the cultural aspects of Kerala may be relevant to the context. Literature and various forms of art and architecture need a sketching. Malayalam language which achieved its own distinctive characters from the ninth century CE, began to produce high quality  Introduction 11 literature by the close of the nineteenth century. Starting with Pāttu Sāhityam (folk songs and ballads of popular origin), it developed, through early prose works and manipravālam (combination of Malayalam and Sanskrit) from the thirteenth century onwards, early champus (narratives alternatively in prose and verse) and sandēsa kāvyas („message poems‟) from fourteenth century, period of Niranam poets and Cherussery and Udaya Varma Kolathiri, later champus, during the fifteenth and the sixteenth centuries, to attain a classical stature by sixteenth to seventeenth century with Tunchath Ezhuthachan, who has been rightly hailed as „the father of Malayalam language‟. There followed such illustrious figures as Punthanam Namputhiri (1547-1640), Unnai Warrier (eighteenth century) who is famous for introducing āttakatha (dance) form of literature (Nalacaritam and others) and Ramapurath Warrier (author of Kuchēlavrittam Vancipāttu and other works) who adorned the court of Marthanda Varma (eighteenth century). Kunchan Nambiar (1705- 1770) who adorned the court of Dharma Raja with his epoch making tullal (dance) songs crown this period. There followed a period of stagnation caused by the unrest and turmoil prevailing during the Mysore invasion and various revolts. A revival started with the reign of Swati Tirunal (1829-1847). Irayimman Tampi, the well known āttakatha composer whose tārāttu or lullaby ōmanttinkal kitāvo became very popular, was a courtier of Swati Tirunal. Sankaranatha Joshier (d. 1858) and his son Attukal Sankara Pillai were other luminaries of this period. The immediate post-Swati Tirunal period was characterized by a large output of translations, letters written in poetry and the compositions of „instant poets‟. During the second half of the nineteenth century Malayalam literature arrived at a momentous stage with great writers like Kerala Varma Koil Tampuran (1845-1914), hailed as „Kerala Kalidasa‟ for his translation of Sakuntalam, A. R. Raja Raja Varma hailed as „Kerala Panini‟ who wrote Kerala Paniniyam, and other great works. Luminaries like Kunjikuttan Tampuran (1865-1913) hailed as „Kerala Vyasa‟ for his translation of the whole of Mahabharata and Kochunni Tampuran both of the royal family of Kodungalloor, a number of others under the patronage of the same royal family introduced the era of mahākāvyas (epics). Some others who composed works in the mahākāvya style were K. C. Kesava Pillai, Kattakkayathil Cherian Mappila, Pantalam Kerala Varma, and Vadakkumkur Raja Raja Varma. With Vallathol Narayana Menon (1875-1958), Ullur S. Parameswara Iyer (1879-1949), both of whom in the initial stage tried with mahākāvyas, and Kumaran Āsān (1873-1924) the modern era of 12 Saint Kuriakose Elias Chavara Malayalam literature was ushered in. In the nineteenth century other literary forms such as novel, short story, drama, literary criticism, essays and works on science and technology, biography and travelogue, grammar and dictionary, history and historical criticism had their beginning. The Christians also made their contributions to Malayalam literature and language. Starting with Kristīya Matatattvam („Christian Doctrine‟) and Kristīya Vanakkam („Christian Devotion‟) in the sixteenth century, many missionaries and native Christians wrote books, mostly religious in character. Missionary Ernst Hanxleden („Arnos Pathiri‟, d. 1732) is perhaps one of the most outstanding literary composers. He as well as a few other missionaries down to Benjamin Baily (1820s), Herman Gundert (from mid eighteenth century) wrote grammars and dictionaries, histories and theological treatises. Gundert started two earliest Malayalam periodicals or newspapers, Rājyasamācāram (June 1847) and Pascimōdayam (October 1847). Among the natives the names of Joseph Cariattil (d. 1786) and Thomas Paremmakkal (d. 1799) deserve special mention for the eighteenth century. The former wrote theological treatises with the name Vēdatarkam („Disputations on Religion‟) and the latter wrote the well known first travelogue in Malayalam, Varttamānapustakam. Kattakkayathil Cherian Mappila belongs to the modern era. In between comes the writings of Saint Kuriakose Chavara about which we will speak in chapter nine. Kerala cultural forms of art, architecture and sculpture developed through the centuries. Murals and detached paintings started appearing in 8-12 centuries. After a decline in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries a revival took place in the last decades of the nineteenth century, for which Raja Ravi Varma of the Kilimanur family was mainly responsible. Kerala attained its own style of architecture by the ninth century CE. However, the common Dravidian style of buildings also continued. It is in the construction of temples and palaces these styles are visible. Painted murals are a common feature of these public buildings. A classical example is the „Dutch Palace‟ of Mattanchery, actually built by the Portuguese in 1555. It is a synthesis of Kerala and Portuguese styles. Christian churches were built mostly in the simple temple style till the arrival of the Portuguese who introduced the contemporary Portuguese (Manuelian) style in the churches they built. Most churches of the St Thomas Christians were modified taking inspiration from the Portuguese architecture, so that they turned out to be a blend of Kerala temple and Portuguese Manuelian styles. Some of the early  Introduction 13 mosques followed a combination of Kerala and Indo-Saracenic style of architecture. This pattern of the architecture continued into the nineteenth century. Various forms of performing arts were developed in Kerala: Kūdiyattam, Chākiarkūthu, Mōhini Āttam, Kathakali, Ōttam Tullal, Yaksha Gāna, Pathakam, Harikatha, etc. Temple feasts or utsavams were generally occasions for performing these art forms. The musical instruments used for these performances were chenda, tayyambaka, panchavādyam (maddalam, timila, edakka, sankhu and tālam). Though some of these instruments were used in churches, they were progressively replaced by western style string and wind instruments. The specific performing arts the Christians developed were Mārgamkali Pattu and (after the arrival of westerners) Chavittunatakam. The Muslims have not only their Māppila Pāttukal but also the Oppana. Kalaripayattu, parisamuttu, vēlakali, vāleru (sword throwing), kuntēru (javelin throw), ñanimmel kali (tight rope walking) were developed as the traditional martial arts of Kerala. Vicissitudes of Christians The Catholic mission started in the sixteenth century under the initiative of Padroado and continued by Padroado and Propaganda missionaries produced significant results. There was a record growth in the number of Christians till the middle of the eighteenth century. This was followed by a decline, the causes for which were many: the „Malabar Rites‟ (the inculturation experiment launched by Robert de Nobili and his Jesuit followers) controversy and its eventual suppression; the disappearance of the Jesuits from the mission field (the Society of Jesus was suppressed in 1773); scarcity of other missionary personnel; the four Mysore wars under Hyderali and Tippu (1766-1799). From the early decades of the nineteenth century there was a revival. As mentioned earlier, after a number of crises Europe witnessed an extraordinary renewal of Christian faith and life, which led to a great missionary enthusiasm. Many of the older religious orders evinced stronger missionary thrust; new religious communities were established to serve in foreign missions; the suppressed Society of Jesus was restored (1814). All these factors brought about a vigorous revival of mission in India. The problem that affected the progress was the conflict between the Apostolic See of Rome and the secularized Portugal. Though this problem was largely resolved in the late 1850s, the Padroado-Propaganda jurisdictional conflict continued to harm the Church in certain parts of India, including Kerala. 14 Saint Kuriakose Elias Chavara Reform of priestly formation which attracted the attention of Church authorities since the Council of Trent, yielded tangible results in India only in the nineteenth century. The Synod of Pondicherry (1844) and the measures subsequently taken by the Propaganda gave a boost to the reform attempts.3 There followed a number of provincial councils which gave serious attention to seminary formation. A central seminary („Papal Seminary‟) for the whole of India was established at Kandy in Sri Lanka in 1893, which became a standard setter for other seminaries. In Kerala a seminary was established in 1762 at Varapuzha by the Carmelite missionaries under the Propaganda. It accommodated both St Thomas Christian and Latin students. After a short trial the two communities were separated: the Latin students continued at Varapuzha and the St Thomas Christian students were shifted to Alangad, where Dr Joseph Cariattil taught for a number of years. The two seminaries were again amalgamated at Varapuzha. Although Syrian and Latin languages were taught in the seminary, the chief medium of instruction was the local language, Malayalam. But the subjects taught were derived from Latin-Western sources and had only an elementary standard. It seems only a handful of St Thomas Christian students attended this seminary, the majority continuing in local centres under priest teachers, who had the title of malpan, a Syriac term for a learned man or professor or doctor of theology. Thus, in the nineteenth century we hear of a number of such centres or local seminaries. Fr Bernard refers to seven common seminaries that functioned in Kerala from the sixteenth to the nineteenth century: those of Angamaly, Kodungalloor, Vaipicotta or Chennamangalam, Sampalur (Ampazhakad), Varapuzha, Alangad and Kaduthruthy. He also lists a number of regional or local seminaries: Kalparamb or Puthotta (Pukkota), Karakunnam, Pulincunnu, Mylacomb, etc. (see Bernard 1921: 265f.). In connection with the story of the disturbances caused by the Chaldean intruding bishop, Mar Thomas Roccos, there is mention of a number of malpan directors running such local seminaries, e.g., Malpans Muprayil Aipe of Pala, Karakkunnel, Minattur of Anakallel, Cherian Mathu of Ñarackal (see ‟81: 61, 189, 194f.; Parapuram: 578f.; Positio: 210f.). Malpans Mathu Paraya- mmakkal was directing the seminary at Vadayar in the beginning of the nineteenth century. It seems that this seminary was merged with 3 For details see Thomas Anchukandam SDB, 1. The First Synod of Pondicherry 1844, Bangalore: Kristu Jyoti Publications, 1996; 2. Catholic Revival in India in the Nineteenth Century: Role of Clement Bonnand (1796-1819), Bangalore: Kristu Jyoti Publications, 2006.  Introduction 15 that of South Pallipuram in 1818 (see ‟81: 61). Details regarding the seminary at Pallipuram shall be elaborated later. A more or less clear picture of the position and dignity of a malpan of the eighteenth or nineteenth century emerges in the person of Malpan Abraham Thachil. Saint Chavara refers to this malpan of his own malpan Thomas Palackal at least four times in his chronicle. In the life of Malpan Palackal he says: As the epidemics and famine spread in the north and as there came Tippu Sultan and his army burning churches and towns and forcing people at the point of the sword to embrace his faith, people fled to those areas where the epidemic had subsided. Among these were Thachil Mathu Tharakan from Kuthiathodu and his brother, Malpan Abraham. The latter brought with him the deacons who were studying under him and set up a seminary at Pallipuram and began to teach there. Then this Thomas Palackal eager to study was admitted to his home, the food being provided by his mother according to the custom (‟81: 61; ‟90: 53f.). In another place Chavara speaks of the great regard and respect Palackal had for his malpan: At Kalparambu the old Malpan Abraham Kuthiathotil was still teaching, but he was now being helped by Fr Edakulath, the present malpan. This old malpan had been of much help to Fr Palackal and so he made up his mind to visit him and get his blessing. He decided to go for the feast at Kalparambu on the first Sunday of September together with Fr Chandy Mangalath of Pallipuram (then a beginner and later the malpan at Varapuzha), Fr Joseph Pazhekadavan of Vaikom and me. Each of the first two brought from his home a length of cloth, and for me Fr Palackal himself bought a large dyed blanket from Kollachil. He took the three of us first to Kochi and there he purchased some costly sweetmeats and other eatables. With all these we reached Kalparambu and saw the hale and hearty malpan. Fr Palackal paid obeisance to his malpan with more reverence and submission than we showed to him. Then he moved away and stood at a respectful distance. We three brought the presents and after placing them in his room, went up to his chair, knelt down and kissed his hand: immensely pleased he laid his hands on our heads (‟81: 68f.; ‟90:60f.). Again we see Malpan Abraham on a visit to Varapuzha. In this episode one gets some information about the title, insignia, etc. of a malpan. 16 Saint Kuriakose Elias Chavara When V. Rev. Bishop Milesius Prendergast was the vicar apostolic at Varapuzha, Fr Palackal took some of us to be given holy orders at the time fixed for ordination. Rev. Abraham Malpan had come to get his nephew, Deacon Abraham, ordained on the order of the governador [administrator of Cranganore]. Rev. Cherian Mathu Malpan was teaching at the seminary at that time. He had been helped while a student by the former. He and our malpan with all of us, clerics, went to the riverside to receive Malpan Abraham and escorted him into the bishop‟s room. He had the title, “The Malpan of Malabar,” wore a ring and obtained salary from Portugal. Over his cassock he wore a cope. His Grace received him with great respect. After that he came down and all the time there the two younger malpans never sat down (‟81: 69f; ‟90: 61). In a different context (see ‟81: 8; ‟90: 11) Chavara calls Abraham Malpana d’ Kolla Hendo („Malpan of All India‟). This reminds us of the title the metropolitans and archdeacons of the St Thomas Christians had in the ancient times (see also p. 396 below). In the 1850s Vicar Apostolic Baccinelli closed some twenty „malpan seminaries‟. Many of the malpan directors thus demoted later became ardent adherents of Roccos and party. The suppressed seminaries were gradually replaced by those, which were established attached to the CMI monasteries of Mannanam, Elthuruth, Vazhakulam, Pulincunnu, while the seminary at Varapuzha continued as an inter-ritual institution. It was shifted to Puthenpally in 1866 and was accommodated in the building, which was meant for a convent for women. In 1890 the Holy See declared the seminary at Puthenpally “Central Apostolic Seminary,” to serve the whole of Kerala, an inter-ritual institution for that matter. It was shifted to Aluva (Mangalapuzha) in 1932. Christian Communities of Kerala Till the nineteenth century there were only three Christian communities in Kerala, the Latin Catholics, the Catholic St Thomas Christians and the Orthodox (or Jacobite) St Thomas Christians (including a small faction of the Independent „Syrian Church‟ of Thozhiyur-Anjur). Protestants started arriving in the beginning of the nineteenth century and expanded throughout Kerala. The Anglican infiltration into the Orthodox Christians caused a division, giving birth to the Marthoma Church. The unsettled relationship of the Orthodox with Syrian Antioch created tensions and led to a division  Introduction 17 in 1911/12. The smooth growth of the Latin Christians was marred by caste factors and Propaganda-Padroado conflicts. The first Protestant mission in Kerala was started at Nagercoil in 1806 by a Prussian (Lutheran) missionary W. T. Ringelaube. The London Missionary Society (LMS) soon followed suit with Rev. Joseph Mead (1817-1873) and others. They established themselves mainly in south Thiruvithamcore. The Church Mission Society (CMS) established their mission at Kottayam in 1813 and worked in central Kerala. Thomas Norton, Benjamin Bailey, Baker and Joseph Fenn were pioneers of this mission. The Basel Evangelical Mission started work in British Malabar from the middle of the nineteenth century; Dr Gundert did pioneer work there. All these groups gave primary importance to education and transmission of knowledge. They established schools, colleges, printing presses and published books and journals. The main target of these activities was to educate the new converts to Christianity from the lower classes of people. In central Kerala special attention was given to the Orthodox (Jacobites). 4 From 1806 there was an attempt on the part of the CMS missionaries to bring about an alliance between the Syrian Christians, especially the Orthodox, and the Church of England. The agents of the Church of England and a number of British officials gave the movement great encouragement. Even the East India Company, in consideration of the political advantages for Britain, was positive towards this attempt. When Macaulay was resident of Thiruvithamcore a study was undertaken by Claudius Buchanan about the feasibility of the project. His recommendations were followed up by Resident Macaulay. It was Col. Munro, the successor of Macaulay, who carried it forward.5 The Orthodox (Jacobite) existence – separated from Roman allegiance and with an unsettled relationship with the Syrian Orthodox Church of Antioch – had undergone and continued to undergo various vicissitudes. A movement to unite with those under Rome was a continuing phenomenon ever since the vertical split in the middle of the seventeenth century. The movement climaxed in a short-lived union under Metropolitan Thomas VI or Mar Dionysius I in June 1799. But within six months the metropolitan returned to the Orthodox communion (see Hambye 1997: 59ff.). For a partial reunion one had to wait till the early decades of the twentieth century – a 4 See Sreedhara Menon 1967: 380. 5 Kulakkatt 2002: 370ff., gives a good coverage of this attempt. 18 Saint Kuriakose Elias Chavara small group of bishops, priests, religious and laity united with Rome in 1930 under the leadership of Mar Ivanios and consequently the Sryo-Malankara Church was established. The unsettled and critical relationship of the Indian Orthodox with Antioch continued to create tensions. In the meantime, the Anglican infiltration into the Orthodox community created another crisis. The alliance movement, to which reference was made above, between the CMS missionaries and the Orthodox masterminded by Col. Munro, who as resident and chief minister of both Thiruvithamcore and Kochi emerged all powerful, was a great boost to the Orthodox community and the leaders of the Orthodox generally welcomed it. At the same time it opened the way for undue interference by the British officials in the internal affairs of the Indian Church. The missionaries were bent on bringing about a radical reform in the faith and worship of the community. Dionysius I died in 1808. Disputes arose between the hereditary successors Mar Thomas VII and Mar Thomas VIII, and their opponents led by Joseph Ramban. These disputes were fine opportunities for Munro to manipulate things according to his designs, to play a pater familias role with regard to the Orthodox. When the much harassed Thomas VIII died, Munro forced Thomas IX to resign and got Ramban Joseph consecrated Dionysius II by Philoxenus II of Thozhiyur. With this the hereditary succession of prelates came to an end and the principle of election was introduced. In 1817 Dionysius II died and Philoxenus II of Thozhiyur was elected metropolitan. He soon retired to Thozhiyur and his secretary was elected metropolitan assuming the name Dionysuis III. The reformation was going on steadily along Anglican lines. The process continued to progress till the death of Dionysius III in 1825. Munro had retired in 1819. The CMS missionaries and Anglophiles among the Orthodox wanted the process of reform to gather momentum. But the new metropolitan Dionysius IV, who was consecrated in 1825, for his own reasons adopted a go slow policy. Soon differences and conflicts arose. The reform party was led by Abraham Malpan while the majority followed the leadership of Dionysius IV. Attempts at compromise were finally rejected in the Mavelikara Synod of 1836.6 The conflicts continued between Metropolitan Dionysius V and his rival Mathew Mar Athanasius. In 1876 a synod met at Mulamthuruthy in the presence of the Antiochene patriarch, Peter III, which was decisive. Those who refused to acknowledge the authority of the patriarch formed a 6 See Kulakkatt, 2002: 392ff.  Introduction 19 separate group under Mathew Mar Athanasius. The group was first known as „Reformers‟, later the name was changed into „Mar Thomas Church‟ (see Mundadan 2003: 125ff.). Catholic Community A few problems affected the progress of the Catholics negatively. One was the Padroado-Propaganda conflict that aggravated from the 1820s. The secular regime in Portugal clashed with the Church, which finally led to a break in the diplomatic relation of Portugal with Rome. Consequently Pope Gregory XVI, by the bull Multa praeclare dated 14 April 1838, suppressed the Padroado sees of Cranganore, Cochin and Mylapore, and put all the faithful of these sees (both St Thomas Christians and Latins) under the neighbouring vicariates apostolic under Propaganda. Cranganore and Cochin were annexed to the Vicariate Apostolic of Malabar which by now began to be known as Vicariate Apostolic of Verapoly. This gave rise to a revolt and disobedience of Padroado clergy and laity. The effects of this crisis continued throughout the nineteenth and into the twentieth century, despite the fact that a reconciliation of Portugal was effected by the concordat of 1857 (see Anchukandam 2006: 443ff.). Another problem which continued into the twentieth century was the question of indigenization of the hierarchy. The Propaganda took good interest in the seventeenth century to appoint indigenous persons as prelates. Actually a few brahmins of Goa origin were appointed vicars apostolic of the newly created ecclesiastical units under the Propaganda (see Mundadan 2003: 148ff.). This enthusiasm soon cooled down and foreign prelates continued to rule the Latin Church in India till the early years of the twentieth century, both under Padroado and Propaganda. It was in 1923 that an Indian (Bishop Tiburtius Roch, SJ of Tuticorin) was made the head of a Latin Rite diocese. This was despite the fact that in 1886/7 the Latin hierarchy had been established by Pope Leo XIII. The Latin Rite Catholics of Kerala made good progress under the Padroado and Propaganda missionaries. However one or two problems negatively affected their progress. One was the ill treatment the Latin Rite Catholics in Kochi had to face under Saktan Tampuran. Another problem was related to caste distinctions. The community was divided into three main groups: Ezhunnūttikar or the „Seven Hundred‟, Aññūttikar or the „Five Hundred‟, and Munnūttikar or the „Three Hundred‟, who being a mixture of European and Indian parentage were also known by other names such as „Mestiços‟ (mixed race), „Parangi‟, etc. (see Mundadan 2003: 349). Caste feelings were 20 Saint Kuriakose Elias Chavara strong especially among the „Five Hundred‟. They were discriminated by the „Seven Hundred‟, who even opposed Aññūttikar being ordained to priesthood. This became an acute problem under the interim vicar apostolic Maurilius Stabilini (see chapter 2). The Padroado-Propaganda conflict also affected the community adversely, especially after Multa praeclare of 1838. Catholic St Thomas Christians While the process of reawakening of Hindu ethos and of national consciousness was progressing, the community of the Catholic St Thomas Christians was moving towards the final stage of their struggle for autonomy and selfhood. Bishop Florence of Jesus of Nazareth died at Varapuzha on 26 July 1773. In his funeral the traditional functions were arrogantly denied by the missionaries to the Syrians. This became the immediate cause of an open agitation. It started with a convention at Angamaly (generally known as the „First Angamaly Convention‟7). This was an occasion for the leaders of the community to give vent to their accumulated grievances against the Carmelite missionaries and take measures to remedy them. Heated discussion went on for days in the convention bitterly complaining against the commissions and omissions of the missionaries. However it ended in a temporary reconciliation, as the missionaries showed their readiness to accommodate the demands of the representatives. It was two or three years after this convention that the mission of Malpan Joseph Cariattil and Cathanar Thomas Paremmakkal to Lisbon and Rome took place. One of the principal objects of their journey was to procure the union of the Orthodox under Mar Thomas VI or Mar Dionysius I (1765-1808) with the Catholics. The mission was successful and Cariattil, appointed archbishop of Kodungalloor 8 in 1782 and consecrated in 1783 at Lisbon. He was granted all the faculties to receive Dionysius I into the Catholic Church. It was only in 1786 that he and his companion Paremmakkal returned to India. Unfortunately he got sick in Goa and died there before reaching Kerala. Subsequently Thomas Paremmakkal was appointed administrator („governador‟ in Portuguese) of Kodungalloor (see Mundadan 2003: 63ff.; Hambye 1997: 28ff.). The state governments of Thiruvithamcore and Kochi approved his authority. 7 The meeting in 1787 (see below) is known as the „Second Angamaly Convention‟. 8 It was also known at that time as Puthenchira where the Padroado bishops resided for many years.  Introduction 21 Paremmakkal convened a meeting or yogam of representatives at Angamaly in the beginning of 1787 (the „Second Angamaly Convention‟). Frustrated by the untimely death of Cariattil and bitter against the aggressive policies of the missionaries the community wanted to have a head for their Church from among themselves. The declaration (padiyola9) prepared by the representatives reflects this frustration, the various grievances they had suffered at the hands of the missionaries and their determination to have a bishop of their own choice. Their first choice was Paremmakkal himself. If that was not possible (they knew the strong opposition to this suggestion on the part of the missionaries whom he had strongly criticized), they wanted some other St Thomas Christian priest. If this was also denied by Portugal, the convention threatened to have recourse to the Chaldean patriarch for a bishop. The missionaries tried all possible means to thwart the move. Paremmakkal continued as administrator ably governing the Church. In another meeting he convened, twelve canons were elected to help in the administration. He himself did not seem to have made any move to approach the Chaldean patriarch or encourage it. But soon a small group around Changanachery region emerged who took the initiative to approach Mesopotamia. In October 1797 a delegation of three young men reached Mosul. Paul Pandari of Puthenchira was one of them. He was ordained bishop and took the name Mar Abraham. He reached back to Kerala in January 1798 and was warmly welcomed in the Changanachery region but could not exercise any authority as long as Paremmakkal lived. Prior to these events on the historical front this the Mysore forces under Tippu Sultan entered the territories of Thiruvithamcore and Kochi. He reached up to Aluva. But in 1790 he was forced to withdraw and go back to Mysore. During this onslaught, about twenty-four churches were fully or partially destroyed in north Kerala, a number of Christians migrated from the north to the southern regions. Abraham Malpan Thachil was one of such migrants. He first stayed at Kaduthuruthy, and then at Pallipuram and taught seminarians. Paremmakkal died on 20 March 1799, when Mar Abraham (Paul Pandari) presumed to exercise jurisdiction. In consultation with the twelve canonists, he appointed one of them, Abraham Kattakayam, administrator. Since Pandari had no briefs to do so the move was considered schismatic. This made many disaffected Syrians to move 9 The well known Angamaly Padiyola (see Bernard 1992: 667ff.); see also Varthamanapusthakam 1977: 378f. 22 Saint Kuriakose Elias Chavara over to the vicar apostolic of Varapuzha. At that time Aloysius of St Joseph de Ribamar was administrator of Kochi diocese. He had also charge of Kodungalloor. He convened a meeting of Church representatives at Mar Sliba Church of Alappuzha. He presented before the assembly a panel of four persons, the names of which he had obtained from Msgr Louis Mariam, Vicar Apostolic of Verapoly. One of the names was that of Malieckal George Sankurickal, who had studied at the Propaganda College in Rome and was appointed malpan of Pukkota or Kalparamb seminary on his return to Kerala in 1787. The assembly selected him for the post of administrator. As he took charge in 1800 both Kattakkayam in 1801 and Pandari in 1802 submitted to him. Thus the „schism‟ ended. 10 Sankurickal was to administer the archdiocese only for a year; he died in 1801 (see details in Bernard 1992: 667ff.; see also Hambye 1997: 34ff.). As mentioned above when Paremmakkal was administrator all the churches of the St Thomas Christians that were under the Padroado Archdiocese of Cranganore had come under him. But due to the confusion that followed his death a number of churches went back to the vicariate apostolic. After Sankurickal‟s death it was Portuguese prelates who were appointed administrators to Kodungalloor: Dominic administrator from 1810; he was followed by Joachim Bothelho, administrator; Paul da S. Thomé d‟Aquina e Almeida OP 1819-1823, administrator up to 1821 and archbishop 1821-1823;11 Joseph Joachim da Immaculata Conceição, administ-rator in 1825 who does not seem to have occupied the see; João da Porto Peixoto administrator 1826-1838;12 Manuel de S. Joaquim Neves OP, administrator 1845-1848.13 From this list it is clear that Padroado failed to provide continuous and efficient prelates to govern the see. There were long periods of absence of prelates. Only one of the prelates was archbishop for two to three years. These prelates do not seem to have any permanent residence. Administrator Neves, coming as he was after the promulgation of Multa praeclare, seems to have illegally governed the archdiocese. During this time the Propaganda prelates were all Carmelites, all vicars apostolic with episcopal titles, except one or two who had only 10 Pandari soon disappeared from the scene. About this there were many stories doing the round. 11 He was also administrator of Kochi. He is buried in the church at Changanachery. 12 This list is compiled from Tisserant 1957: 188 and Podipara 1970: 184f; see also Bernard 1992: 701-703. There are confusions in the lists. 13 He is buried at Kanjur.  Introduction 23 the title of administrator: Aloysius Mary of Jesus, 1784-1802; Raymond of St Joseph Roviglia, bishop of Suria ( or Sura), 1803- 1816; Peter Alcantara, Vicar Apostolic of the Great Mogul, administrator of Verapoly till 1821; Miles Prendergast, 1818-27/-31 (appointed in 1818 but took charge only in 1821, left Malabar in 1827, resigned in 1831 and died in 1844); Maurilius Stabilini (interim), 1827-31; Francis Xavier Pescetto, 1831-1844; Ludovic of St Teresa Martini, 1844-1853 (died in 1859). Under these double regime, crossovers from Padroado to Propaganda and vice versa were common. From 1838, the year in which Pope Gregory XVI published the bull Multa praeclare, Kodungalloor and Kochi were suppressed and attached to Verapoly /Malabar Vicariate. At that time the St Thomas Christians are said to have requested Rome to confer on Vicar Apostolic Pescetto the title of archbishop. This request was accepted and the vicar apostolic was made titular archbishop 14 (see Podipara 1970: 186). The suppression of the Padroado sees resulted in the extension of the Vicariate Apostolic of Verapoly from Canara in the north to Kanyakumary in the south. This vast territory, therefore, was divided after 1845 into the Vicariate of Verapoly in the centre (the territory between the river Ponnani or Bharatapuzha in the north and the river Pampa in the south), Quilon in the south, and Mangalore in the north. Second Half of the Nineteenth Century After a prolonged negotiation between the Holy See and the Portuguese government a concordat was signed in 1857. The provisions of the concordat were applied to the Kerala situation only in 1864 by the apostolic commissioner Msgr Salvator Saba. He was helped by an English monsignor Howard and a Portuguese layman. Msgr Saba by a decree gave choice to the faithful to join either the Propaganda or the Padroado within a specific time. It was just two years ago that the Roccos episode had taken place (see chapter 6) and many churches had fallen victims to it. Roccos left Kerala in March 1862. Soon the churches, one after another, submitted to the authority of Vicar Apostolic Baccinelli. But a few churches remained stubborn. Msgr Saba gave these churches the option to join any of the regimes 14 This title seems to have automatically accrued to his successors, although in the case of Msgr Leonard Mellano there is a fresh conferring of the title when he was in Rome to attend the First Vatican Council (see chapter 10). In 1886, when the Latin hierarchy of India was established, Verapoly became a residential archbishopric. 24 Saint Kuriakose Elias Chavara even after the expiry of the date fixed by him for the other churches. This state of affairs continued till 1886 in which year Cranganore was suppressed. Here we may mention the names of the prelates of the second half of the nineteenth century under Propaganda and Padroado. It seems that the illegally appointed administrator Manuel Neves (1845-1848) was followed by others. In the late 1850s and early 60s we hear of Antonio João Ignacio-Santimano in Kollam as the Padroado- appointed administrator of Cranganore and Cochin, who refused to submit to the Vicar Apostolic of Quilon (see Anchukandam 2006: 467f.). After the arrangements made by Msgr Saba in 1864 we have the following prelates on the Padroado side, all adminsistrators: Antony Paul Pinto (1864-1866); Joseph Ayres de Silveira Mascrenhas (1866); Antony Correa dos Reis Coelho (1867-1869); Antony Vincent Lisboa (1867); Valentine Constantine Fernandes (1875); Francis Barbosa (1876); Benedict R. Gomes and Casimir Nazareth (1877-84); Narcise, pro-administrator (1885); Cajetan J. M. Abreu (1885-1887). On the Propaganda side the prelates were all Carmelites: Bernadine of St Teresa Baccinelli (1853-1868); Leonard of St Louis Mellano (1868-97); Bernard of Jesus (1897-1919). In 1887 Mellano became archbishop of Verapoly. Under him Marceline Berardi was appointed coadjutor in 1877 exclusively for the Syrians. The Syrians were separated from Varapuzha jurisdiction in 1887. It was under Mellano that the Melusian „schism‟ occurred with the arrival of Mar Elias Melus sometime in October 1874. It finally gave rise to a small Church separated from Rome, the „Surai‟ Church of Thrissur or the Assyrian Church of the East (see Podipara 1972: 191f.). Sources and Studies Our study is based mainly on the writings of Chavara (see chapter 9).15 Other primary sources used are early biographies of the Saint written by various persons who knew him closely and were intimately associated with him during his life time. Such are two short biographies written immediately after his death: one by Fr Kuriakose Porukara, one of the first eleven priests who made their religious profession in 1855 and who succeeded Chavara as prior of Mannanam in 1864 and as prior general in 1871; the other biography is by Fr Leopold Beccaro OCD who was Chavara‟s spiritual director 15 We have drawn heavily from his chronicles, Mannanam Chronicles, Vols. I and II, both written by Chavara.  Introduction 25 from 1864 onwards and who, as provincial delegate of the religious community of Chavara, was involved in many ways in the building up of the community from 1863 to 1873. A short, almost romantic type of biography in poetic form bearing the title Purāthana Pāttukal („Old Songs‟) was composed in 1890. Almost a day to day report of the last illness and death of the Saint written by Fr Leonard Moolayil is available to us. A more comprehensive biography was composed by Fr Philip Koyipallil in 1929. Both of them were members of the CMI Congregation and knew Chavara personally during his life time. While the first two have been printed and published, the last three remain still in manuscripts. Printed biographies began to appear from 1936 on. Printed biographies shall be mentioned later after indicating a few other primary sources. Valuable accounts about Saint Chavara are found in the chronicle of Mannanam Monastery, Vol. III, for years 1864-91;16 the chronicle of Vazhakulam Monastery, 1859-91; that of Elthuruth Monastery, 1856-66. Special mention must be made of the diary of Parapuram, rich with a lot of information, which has been very useful to us for clarifying many points. The chronicle of the Koonammavu Convent is an important source especially regarding Chavara‟s role in the foundation of that convent, also for the last illness and demise of the Saint. Limited information is also available in other diaries and accounts of the time, e.g., diary of Fr Mathai Mariam Palakunnel, diary of Br Rocky, writings of Fr Marceline Berardi. Testimonies of some contemporaries are of great value, e.g., that of Fr Louis of Manjummel who was a disciple of Chavara; that of Fr Marceline Alackappally, who kept a record of what he heard from Chavara‟s contemporaries. There are many letters and correspondence, apart from those of Chavara himself. As the readers will realize most of these sources are scattered and kept in different archives or libraries. But the important publication which we quote as Positio has been of immense help in writing this biography. In it is listed almost comprehensively the pertinent documents, both published and unpublished, related to the life and death of Saint Chavara, and to a large extent the process of his canonization. The documents are not only listed in it with introductions and footnotes, but excerpts from most of them are given in Latin. There is another collection of documents, collected mostly by the historical commission and presented to the eparchial process, called „Processus Ordinarius‟. They were later presented for the 16 Volumes I and II are by Chavara (see footnote above). 26 Saint Kuriakose Elias Chavara process in Rome. There is a complete set of this collection in the CMI Procura in Rome. A few volumes are kept at Mannanam office. Biographies began to be published from 1936. The first of such biographies is the one written in Malayalam by Fr Mathias Joseph Maliempurackal published in 1936. This, being the first to be published, attracted public attention. Two reviews of it were published, one by the well known writer I. C. Chacko in (Nazrāni) Deepika and the other by equally known writer O. M. Cherian in Malayala Manorama. A larger, more comprehensive and well documented Malayalam biography was published by Fr Valerian Plathottam in 1939. Being based mainly on original sources it is a very valuable work 17 and later biographies depended upon it. Fr Valerian published a short biography in English in 1953. A small biography in Malayalam under the title Karmayogi was published by P. T. Thomas in 1953. The best biography so far published in English is the one by the well known writer K. C. Chacko in 1959.18 Here I would mention the names of a few persons who wrote notes on various aspects which I have used for writing this account on Chavara. The name of Fr Lucas Vithuvattical comes first. It is he who, as postulator of the cause of Chavara, was mainly responsible for bringing the first phase of the process of canonization of Chavara to a happy conclusion in 1986, when Pope John Paul II declared Chavara Blessed at Kottayam (see chapter 11). He was associated with the process from the beginning and worked on several capacities. He, with the help of some of his students, got the whole material collected by the historical commission translated into Latin. 19 Although the Positio is published in the name of the Congregation for the Causes of Saints, it was Fr Lucas who took all the pains to prepare it. It is evident, then, that his knowledge of the life, activities and virtues of Saint Chavara is vast and comprehensive. With this asset he prepared elaborate notes for my use. I have drawn heavily on these notes and used them critically with the help of primary and secondary sources. Besides, he patiently went through every chapter of the draft and gave me suggestions to improve the text. 17 It is known that it was Fr Simon Pattassery who collected the materials for this biography, and probably who wrote the first draft. 18 For details of the source material and publications mentioned above, see Positio. See also the bibliography given in the present book. 19 This forms the collection mentioned above, Process Ordinarius. Many of these documents are published in Positio at least partially.  Introduction 27 Another person from whom I received substantial help is Fr Thomas Kochumuttom who has written well documented and insightful articles and booklets on Chavara. The notes he prepared on Chavara as karmayogi and the booklet Dream Fulfilled (2005) he authored together with Sr Jossy CMC were particularly useful, the second in writing on the foundation story of the convent for women at Koonammavu, and the first for writing the section on the contemplative personality of Chavara. Fr Thomas Pantaplackal, who shows great interest in the study of Chavara, helped me in many ways, collecting local stories and some relevant documents. The notes Frs Sebastian Poonolly and Domitian Manickathan prepared on the writings of Chavara were very useful for writing chapter nine. Others who helped me with notes and comments on various topics are Frs Joseph Pathrapankal, Paul Kalluveettil, Joseph Kanjirathinkal, Thomas Kadankavil, Antony Vallavamthara, and Jose Frank Chakkalackal. Oral suggestions were received from many other friends. Contents of the Book This biography of Saint Chavara is composed in twelve chapters of which the first two describe Chavara as a saint and prophet in the making: childhood and early education as the dawn of a great sage (chapter 1) and the formation to priesthood, the divine call (chapter 2). It is during these years that a firm foundation was laid, first at home under his pious mother and father and then in the seminary, under the paternal care of the great sage and teacher Malpan Thomas Palackal, for the emergence of the saintly and prophetic personality of the Saint, fully dedicated to the service of God and his people. Chavara played a vital role in the foundation of the Congregation of Carmelites of Mary Immaculate and its early dynamic growth into a spiritual movement enshrined in a charismatic community, rooted in a triple tradition – Indian, East Christian and Carmelite – a community committed to a life of intense prayer and deep recollection, and to the renewal and the building up of the Church and the society at large. This role of Chavara is described in chapters three (foundation of the community), four (the leadership Chavara provided) and five (Chavara‟s life as an ideal religious and superior). After this comes his concern for and direct services to the Church and society. A major service he rendered to the Church in Kerala was the heroic fight he