Bio Exam Review PDF

Plants -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------U1-- Plant Requirements 1.​ Sunlight-leaves 2.​ CO2-leaves 3.​ Water-roots 4.​ Mineral-roots 3 types of tissue 1) Dermal -​ This is like the s...

Plants -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------U1-- Plant Requirements 1.​ Sunlight-leaves 2.​ CO2-leaves 3.​ Water-roots 4.​ Mineral-roots 3 types of tissue 1) Dermal -​ This is like the skin of the plant -​ Outer layer which protects it -​ In non woody plants this is called the epidermis -​ Epidermal cells may be specialized ex. Waxy cuticles can be found on leaves. These help to keep water of the leaves and ensure leaves stay upright and at most SA possible for more photosynthesis -​ They also limit water loss Trichomes -​ These are hair-like structures found on some leaves. This is a adaptation plants have obtained -​ This fuzzy structure helps to minimize water loss but mainly deter insects from the plants by releasing chemicals 2) Vascular tissue -​ These come in bundles of Xylem and Phloem which make up the vascular tissue -​ They distribute nutrients around the plant -​ They also provide structural support to the plant and its leaves -​ Long and hollow Xylem -​ Collection of dead cells -​ Transports water and minerals from the roots Up -​ Absorbs them through active transportation and the water goes up them through negative pressure by heat Phloem -​ Living cells -​ Transports nutrients like sugars from the source,(leaves as photosynthesis happens here) to the sink,anywhere in the plant -​ Both up and downward -​ Transports the nutrients in a sap  -​ In monocots these vascular bundles are scattered throughout ground tissue but in dicots they are arranged in a ring like formation 3) Ground tissue -​ Fills the space between dermal and vascular tissue -​ Makes up most of a young non woody plant -​ Roles in sugar and water storage as well as functions in photosynthesis Organs of the plant -​ Roots -​ Leaves -​ Stems Roots- help to stabilize the plant and allow the absorption of nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium which are all needed for the plant. However, when the same plant is planted over and over again in the same soil, or a monoculture environment is present, it results in soil erosion due to the same plants draining the same nutrients from the soil over and over again leading to soil which is not able to support plant life. But lots of biodiversity will prevent soil erosin Two types if roots: Fibrous roots -​ Usually in monocots -​ Has more lateral roots which are close to the surface -​ Found in moist environments -​ High surface area to help with FAST ABSORPTION -​ Not a strongly anchored in soil and thinner roots Tap roots -​ Act more like a drill -​ Has A LARGE THICK vertical root and smaller lateral roots -​ Drills deeper in to the surface to reach water and minerals VIA it thickness and strong root cap -​ Good in dry arid environments -​ Anchored in well Root hairs -​ Found on both types of roots -​ Hair like structures Increases SA to help with the active transportation/absorption of Minerals and water Root Cap -​ Like a regenerative helmet. -​ FOund on the tips of roots to protect the root when growing downward(primary growth and ensure the root itself does not get damaged so it absorbs well -​ Regrows via merristematic tissue(apical meristemes) -​ Tap roots have stronger root caps Reproduction Sexual -​ Sexual reproduction in plants often happens with the help of pollinators. THese pollinators are attracted to the nectar on the plant and as a result get the pollen stuck to them as well. When the pollinator, bee, goes to another plant, it spreads that pollen on to the other plant’s reproductive structures which can result in seeds being created. This is because of the fusion of the two gamates Asexual -​ When a plant reprodcues without gamates, it is idenetical to its parent and has the same genes, this results in less genetic diversity in populations when asexual reproduction occurs Stems -​ Contain vascular bundles, xylem and phloem -​ Support the plant structurally, its leaves and reproductive organs Leaves -​ Important for gas exchange, photosynthesis and water loss/ minizing and light -​ Leaf’s vascular bundles are found on the underside of the leaf. This is to provide protection -​ Leaves have structures called stomata’s, these stomatas are the sight of gas exchange, CO2 in and O2(the O2 not used in cellular respiration, as plants still cellular respirate and make ATP) out. These stomata are controlled by guard cells which tell the stomiata to open and close depending on environment. -​ Since stomata lead to water loss they will be closed at night, unless you are a cactus, to minimize water loss, and because no sunlight so photosynthesis can not occur -​ When plant is shriviled it will also be closed -​ Leaves have trichomes on them as well which help to deter insects -​ Waxy cuticles to get water off the leaves and ensure leaves stay upright increasing SA as well as reducing water loss Meristematic tissue -​ It is like the plant stem cells -​ Unspecialized cells which will become specilied -​ Multiply and divide rapidly aiding in plant growth, both primary and secondary -​ Apical meristems is a type of meristematic tissue which helps in primary growth Primary growth -​ Is the first growth that a plant goers through -​ It grows upward from the tips of roots and stems -​ Apical meristiems aid in the growth Secondary growth -​ Not all plants go threw as extermeme secondary growth. -​ Mainly woody plants -​ Plants which have adapted to grow taller need the secondary growth in order to stabilze themselves and ensure they do not fall over due to winds -​ Secondary growth plants will get thicker and wider -​ Happens through merristematic tissue -​ 2 types Vascular cambium -​ These cambiums, merristematic tissue, will add cells of xylem and phloem, vascular tissue to the sides of the existing xylem and phloem. This results in a thicker stem over time -​ Helps to increase structural support -​ Happens in both stem and roots -​ It increases the base of the stem but also of the roots which help to anchor the plant even more Cork cambium -​ This is found between cork and the phleom -​ THese meristems produce a tough layer of cork in order to protect the plant from the environment like the cold, to ensure it does not freeze. -​ Cork is a waterproof substance which protect these internal organs -​ Replaces bark when it falls off -​ Happens in mainly woody plants and some monocots Wood -​ Wood is secondary Xylem that grows during the spring and warmer months -​ Wood can be counted by its rings which are a result of these different growing periods -​ Helps to ensure the sap does not freeze during the winter months Bark -​ Everything outside of the vascular cambium -​ As the stem increases(vascualr cambium) then bark falls off Plants need nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, which most get from their roots, but carnivorous plants get from eating insects which is a adaptation Transportation of nutrients Xylem’s water and minerals are: -​ transported via transpiration. This is the process of adhesion and cohesion working together to “pull” water up the xylem -​ From the roots upward the negative pressure the heat puts on these substances causes them to raise up the xylem toward the shoot system -​ THis same heat leads to evaporation through the leaves and stomata Phloem’s transportation of nutrients: -​ The nutrients which the phloem transports are made through photosynthesis in the leaves(source) the nutrients then get transported both up and down the phloem through a sap substance. -​ This sap is what allows the nutrients to travel across the plant as osmosis moves the nutrients around the plant. -​ All cells need the glucose found in this sap to produce ATP during cellular respiration as they need energy to function -​ At the sink this glucose will be consumed or stored for ATP production Adaptations Parasitic plants -​ Plants that obtain some or all of their nutrients from another plant by indaving their vascular bundles Carnivorous plants -​ Still photosythisize, however, they obtain their nitrogen from esting insects, which their leaves have adapted to be able to digest Epiphytes -​ Plants which grow on top of trees or tall plants in order to get more sunlight/ water. It is not a parasitic relationship but mutual as the plant is not harmign the tree, just using it to get closer ot the sun Hormones Auxins -​ Promotes cell elongation -​ Promotes apical dominance(apical meriaitism is what supports primary growth) -​ Important in primary growth -​ And growth upward Phototropism -​ This is a growth response to light -​ Auxins will build up in the shaded part of the plant’s stem -​ This will cause the one side of the plant’s stem to elongate and result in it tilting TOWARD THE SUN allowing the plant leaves to cover a greater surface area therefore more sunlight and more photosynthesis Other Tropism Gravitropism -​ Growth response to gravity Thigmotropism -​ Growth response to touch Cytokinesis -​ Promote cell division, which is needed for growth particularly in -​ The roots, fruit, flower, buds and embryo -​ Used in agriculture to increase fruit size Gibberellins -​ Promote cell elongation and division in the stem -​ They are important for seed germination as well -​ Important in primary growth, allowing plant to grow taller Ethylene -​ Stimulates fruit rippining -​ If the it changes colour then ethylene is at work -​ Causes leaves to fall off as well (this is to limit water loss) Abscisic Acid -​ Stops cell division and primary and secondary growth in order to save energy for colder months -​ It encourages dormancy in plants in order to preserve energy Rapid responses -​ Some plants have a defence mechanism to touch where when they are touched they curl backward Photoperiodism -​ Short day plants will flower when days are shorter and darker -​ Long day plants will flower when they days are longer and sunnier Winter Dormancy -​ Leaves fall to the ground(ethylene) -​ And trees go dormant to preserve energy Aquatic plants -​ They have their bundles and stomaoata flipped in order to survive in their environment Desert plants -​ Cactus have developed spines instead of leaves in order to preserve more water -​ Succulents have adapted to store water in their stems and leaves How do the two different systems work together? The two different systems in the plant are the root and the shoot system. While having very differernt roles they both work together in order to help the plant survive and create ATP -​ The shoot system will bring in O2 through the plant’s stomata -​ The stomata will open via the guard cells and allow Co2 in to the plant, while unfortunately losing water, as when the stomata is open water gets lost at a faster rate -​ THis is the water, and minerals which are needed like nitrogen phospohourous and potassium, which is absorbed via active transportation in the roots through the roots and root hairs, which increase SA. -​ It is important that this water gets transported to the leaves, which it does through transportation, where the negative pressure the heat puts on the water causes it to rise upward to the shoot system. -​ Even though this is what allows for Photosynethis, as the root system brings the water that is needed and the leaves and stomata obtain the sunlight and carbon dioxide, this transpiration causes water loss  -​ However the shoot system has adapted to limit this water loss by allowing the stomata to close via the guard cells helps to limit the water loss when plants are shrivelled or during the night when photosynthesis can not occur -​ The shoot system has also developed trichomes which partly help to limit water loss and same with waxy cuticles which limit water loss and keep the leave upright toward the sun by shedding the water which lands of them off -​ Overall, for photosynthesis to occur, the water from the roots system which goes up the xylem to the leaves, and the sunlight and co2 which the shoot system brings in are all needed for photosynthesis which then makes oxygen and glucose. -​ This is very important becuase these nutrients then are3 used for cellular respiration which all cells in the plant need to preform in order to survive, as they break this glucose to ATP used for energy throughout the whole plant. The cells in the root system then gets these nutrients to ensure their further growth and efficiency to continue this process. These nutrients get transported through the phloem in a sap substances and a process called osmosis This is how the root and shoot system work together. Monocot vs Dicot -​ A monocot, which an abbreviation for monocotyledon, will have only one cotyledon and a dicot, or dicotyledon, will have two cotyledons. -​ Monocot have fibrous roots, do not go through secondary growth -​ Dicots do go through secondary growth, for the most part,(vascular cambium and cork cambium) -​ In monoclots, the vascular tissue will sactter itself around the ground tissue -​ Dicots it will be ordered in a ring i The three sisters -​ This is a indigenous way of planting food and is a example of evnironmental stewardship and intercropping, which means plants work in harmony for nutrients. -​ It involves corn, beans and squash. -​ The corn provides a structure for the beans to grow on and support. -​ The beans positively contribute to nitrogen in the soil and support the corn -​ The squash shades the soil, deterring weeds and maintaining positive soil moisture  DIVERSITY OF LIVING THINGS ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------U2-- History of classification Charles Darwin and his 3 theories: 1.​ Organisms will produce more offspring than can survive and those who do survive many of which will not reproduce 2.​ Because more offspring are produced than can survive there is intense competition for limited resources like water food and shelter 3.​ The organisms best suited for their environment, best traits, will survive and pass down those traits to their offspring Organism who survive and leave the most offspring show high evolutionary fitness. this is becuase they are the survival of the fittest. they are the ones who are best adapted to their environment and as a result reproduce the most and have the best traits for their environment Aristotle and 3 classes: The first attempt at classification comes with aristotle who lived 2000 years ago He classified animals based on their habitats and stem thickness. -​ He separated organisms in two 2 groups animals and plants -​ From there animals went in to land, water and air dwellers(habitat) -​ Plants went in to herbs, shrubs and trees(stem thickness) -​ However this system came with problems -​ Organisms were being classified into groups they did not belong -​ The naming system was confusing making catfish and starfish seem similar even though they are very different -​ Lots of organisms were being discovered and had no proper system to classify them -​ However carl linnaeus came along and solved this issue CARL LINNEUS -​ He started to classify organisms based on structural similarities(morphology) -​ He also created 7 levels of taxon( Kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, Genus, Species -​ NOW we have 8 levels with the most broad being Domain, in order to separate eukaryotes, bacteria and archeabacteria -​ He also created Binominal nomenclature in order to name these organisms Binomial Nomenclature -​ Involves using the Genus(capital) Species(lower case) and have it all italicized -​ Written in Latin -​ The species names are written in the same format because it allows for information to be easily shared without translating issues as science is shared world wide. -​ If Organsims have the same species name then they are able to reproduce with eachother, -​ This allows for easy identifying of which organisms can reproduce with eachother and which can not -​ It always is important and makes it easy to address species which are endangered and spread the word to other scietists, or organisms which were thought to be extinct if they are discovered. -​ It also aids in identifying the biological relationships and if species are related by having the same genus one knows they are closely related -​ It is a easty way to tell if organisms are can breed together as organisms which can breed together are the same species. This is how they determine if organisms are the same species -​ But organisms but create a successful offspring that can reproduce on its Taxonomy -​ This is the study of classifying and naming organisms. -​ Linnaeus is known as the father of taxonomy because of his creation of the 7 levels of taxonomy and binomial nomenclature -​ Aristole classified based on habitat -​ Then carl did it based on morphology -​ Now tech is better and there are 6 modern ways to classify organisms and modern ways of classification organism and attempt to put and orgainze their evolutionary relationships(phylogeny) Phylogeny -​ This is the evolutionary history of an organism, what it evolved from -​ It USES PHYLOGENIC TREES IN ORDER TO VISUALLIZE AND HYPOTHOZISE EVOLUTIONARY RELATIONSHIPS -​ Like a family tree -​ It is organizing organisms based on evolutionary relationships  -​ Shows the evolutionary relationships that organisms share with eachother -​ Expressed in a phylogenic tree with each branch representing a new species -​ In order to classify organims and determine evolutionary relationships there is more then just morphology now. THere are 6 modern ways to classify organisms -​ A branch point in phylogenic trees represents the last common ancestor organisms shared Biological classification (why is it important what does it do)? What are the 6 modern considerations of taxonomy 1.​ Morphology -​ This is the classifying organisms based on structural similarities, like Linneaus did, however, now with technology we can uncover even more about organisms and their structures Homologous structures  -​ These are structures in different organisms that are made up of the same structure but used for different functions. For example a human forearm has the one bone 2 bone many little bone structure and so does a bats wing -​ This indicates that they shared a common ancestor Analogous structures -​ These are structures in different organisms that share the same function, but are different in structure -​ Does not indicate past shared ancestor Vestigial structures -​ These are structures inherited by past ancestors but seem left over and are not used and are shrinking -​ Like hip bones in whales -​ Indectaed past common ancestor w with organisms who share that structure Organisms who share more structures (not analogous) with each other indicate they are closer related 2.​ Cellular organization -​ What does the cell look like? -​ Does sit have a cell wall(plant) -​ Does it have a nucleus -​ Chloroplasts -​ Chromosomes -​ Membrane bound? -​ The more similar the cell the closer organisms are related 3.​ Evolutionary relationships -​ Scientists now group organism in to line of evolutionary decent which is phylogeny -​ Using phylogeny to help classify organisms is much more common -​ Determining a organisms past ancestors and how they developed is a way to classify them -​ Evolutionary relationship grouping could not be possible without phylogeny -​ Fossil show that organisms alive today are similar in structure to those which are now extinct like dinosaurs 4.​ Biochemical similarities -​ Are organisms DNA made of of the same proteins? -​ How many chromosomes do they have  -​ The types of proteins oraganims have can determine how much mutation has occur between their existence and therefore serves as a molecular clock to determine when they separated in evolution -​ Since all organisms have proteins, organisms can be classified in a way which represents their differences in amino acids (what make up proteins) 5.​ Genetic similarities -​ Just cause organisms look differently does not mean they are not similar genetically -​ The more genes organisms share the closer related they are -​ Do they have same number of chromosomes? Same type? -​ Ex. Humans have myosin which they use for muscle contraction, yeast also has this protein which they use to help move structures around the cell -​ This shows a common ancestor who had this protein. -​ More similar DNA the more recently the species diverged from eachother the less similar the longer ago they diverged 6.​ Embryological similarities -​ Just because organisms look different when grown does not mean they do not look the same/ have similar structures when embryos -​ EX turtles and humans look very similar as embryos showing they have a common ancestor IN SUMMARY SCIENTISTS LOOK AT ALL SIX OF THESE FACTORS WHEN DETERMINING CLASSIFICATION AS WELL AS THEORIES OF HOW SPECIES EVOLVED (PHYLOGENY) Tools for classification Cladistics -​ Identifies characteristics which have evolved in new species, this is also called evolution innovation -​ Cladistics looks at organisms to see the derived characteristics which they have developed through evolution Derived characteristic -​ characteristics which were not passed down through ancestors but developed through evolution due to environment and are present in a group of organisms EX feathers in birds or hair in mammals Shared characteristics -​ characteristics/traits which the group of organisms share, like all mammals having hair Shared derived characteristics -​ characteristics which are developed through evolution then continue to get passed on. THis is important because traits are just as likely to disappear as they are to stay around/ mutate further. Multiple groups of organisms share these characteristics not just one group ex Mammals reptiles and amphibians all have 4 limbs Organisms who share the most shared derived characteristics are usually the most recently evolved and most similar. Clades -​ a group of organisms that includes an ancestor and all its descendants, showing evolution and common ancestry between organisms Cladograms(how cladistics is displayed): Has two sections -​ The in group are organisms which all share at least one derived characteristic -​ Any organism with a trait below it one the line will have that trait and all bel0ow it -​ THE OUT GROUP is an organism which does not share any derived characteristics and only exists for a bases of comparison to visually show evolution and how it works -​ The closer the organisms are on the chart and the more derived characters they share, they closer they are related and more similar DNA they most likely have ‘In this example the tortoise is the out group’ Why are cladograms useful?  -​ They help us classify organism and find evolutionary relationships -​ They help us differentiate organism based on the presence or absence of traits(like dichotomous key) allowing us to see the difference and diversity between organisms and why they are distant -​ It shows us exactly how animals change and evolve with their environment and mutate to best adapt to their environment -​ Helps scientists place organisms on an ancestry line and theorize where and when organisms evolved from -​ Helps scientists determine which organisms are closely related based on their shared derived characteristics and which are not related based on having less derived characteristics. -​ Help to show recency of organisms and when they came to be based on these characteristics Phylogeny: -​ Phylogenic trees focus more on how organims are related and do not denounce the traits which make them different -​ They use genetic, embryological, fossil, biochemical similarities -​ Phylogenic trees show the evolutionaryhistory of an organimss and its ancestors -​ They try to place organisms evolution in a place of time whereas CLADOGRAMs just focus on the presents or absence of traits, Gene flow -​ when there is a change in allele frequency due to immigration. this is a example of how organisms adapt to their environment. Their genes will mutate creating different allele combinations to best suit their environment(charles darwin) -​ most evolution does occur through random mutation Dichotomous key: -​ It is a guide to classifying and naming organanims by a series of yes or no questions -​ It helps the user see the different traits of organisms which differetryate them like being eukaryotic vs prokaryotic -​ It lets people see the diversity of living things and the evolution which has resulted in changes -​ However they can be completed in correctly and if done so wrong it can giver the wrong species name resulting in confusion 3 domains of taxon Eukarya- these cells are all eukaryotic meaning they have nuclear membrane and membrane bound organelles like the mitochondria in them. THey are much more complex and have the ability to be multicellular Acharya- this is a type of bacteria. It is prokaryotic meaning it does not have a nucleus making it much simpler. They are different to bacteria because of their cell structure with the cell wall not containing peptidoglycan and lipids found in organism as well as being known as ancient and living in extreme environments ancheint u Bacteria- also prokaryotic and unicellular, its cell walls do contain peptidoglycans. These are the kinds of everyday bacteria that help humanity throughout nitrogen fixation, being in food and cleaning up oil spills, but also harm us through being bacteria like e coli. Measure through gram + and gram - The 6 Kingdoms of Taxon Fungi -​ Domian Eukarya -​ Eukaryotic -​ Cell structure -​ Cell walls have chitin -​ No chloroplast -​ Heterotrophs -​ Uni or Multi cellular -​ Ex mushroom Plantae -​ Domain- Eukarya -​ Eukaryotic -​ Cell walls have cellulose -​ Chloroplasts -​ Autotrophs -​ Multicellular -​ Ex Moses Animal -​ Domain Eukarya -​ Eukaryotic -​ No cell wall -​ No chloroplasts -​ Heterotrophic -​ Multicelular Eubacteria -​ Domain Bacteria -​ Prokaryotic -​ Thick Cell wells have peptodyclobs -​ Hetero or auto trophic -​ Unicellular -​ Autotrophic and heterotrophic -​ Strep, E.Coli -​ Day to day bacteria both good and bad(gram + vs Gram -) -​ Reproduce through binary fission -​ Types of bacteria -​ Saprophyes are bacteria that decompose Archaebacteria -​ Domain Archea -​ Prokaryotic -​ Cell walls do not have peptodlycons -​ Cell membranes have rare lipids -​ Unicellular -​ Auto or heterotrophic -​ Ancient organisms -​ Live in extreme environments THE 3 GROUPS OF ARCHAEBACTERIA Methanogens - oxygen is toxic to them, live in methane rich environments Halophiles - salt loving archaea Thermoacidophiles - love hot acidic environments Protisita -​ Domain Eukarya -​ Eukaryotic -​ Cells can have cellulose or chitin or no cell wall -​ It is the garbage pile of organisms which do not belong to fungi, plant or animal. They have similar characteristics to either but not everything to qualify -​ SOme are heterotrophic some are autotrophic -​ Some are unicellular some are conlinal some are multicellular Bacteria Vs Viruses BACTERIA -​ Prokaryotic -​ Can be helpful or harmful(gram + vs Gram -) -​ THey have rapid reproduction every 20 minutes -​ 3 shapes -​ Cocci- circle -​ Bacilli- rod -​ Spirialla- spiral Bacteria Reproduction -​ Asexually, Binary fusion -​ Happens in Ideal environments -​ The size and dna of a bacteria doubles and then splits to make 1 in to two -​ Increases number, identical offspring Sexually(Conjugation) -​ Does not increase the number or bacteria -​ Happens in non ideal environments like under antibiotics -​ A hollow bridge appears between two bacteria and they transfer genetic information through their plasmid -​ Spreads this DNA to try to buld antibiotic resistance for this bacteria and its future offspring Antibiotics -​ These are used to treat bacteria -​ Bacteria can develop antibiotic resistance through conjugation -​ Antibiotics do not work on viruses Structures -​ Plasmid- contain DNA used to transfers in conjugation -​ flagella - helps with the movement of flagella VIRUSES -​ Extremely small, even smaller than bacteria, infectious bacteria -​ Non living -​ Become active in a host cell needs host to reprocess -​ Can be crystallized showing they are non living. Wendal stanly discovered this -​ Has no cells -​ Can infect even infect away from host cell -​ Are species specific(This is why diversity in ecosystems are so important) Types of virus Bacteriophage -​ Viruses which attack only baceria and archea. -​ Bacteriaphage viruses effect bacetria and the whole organism because bacteria are prokaryotic Living vs nonLiving NON LIVING CHARACTERISTICS -​ Can be crystallized -​ No metabolism -​ Non cellular Living Characteristics -​ Can reproduce -​ Has DNA -​ Can mutate and change Virus structures 1.​ Capsid- protein coat which matches receptors 2.​ Collar 3.​ Base plate 4.​ Sleath 5.​ Tail fibers- lands on host cell 6.​ DNA OR RNA REPRODUCTION 2 cycles there are 4 stages to viral reproduction these are attachment synthesis assembly release Lytic -​ The Virus attaches to the host cell and the capsid tricks the cell in to thinking it is friendly by having the same receptors, which is why they are tissue specific -​ DNA get infused in the cell  -​ VIral DNA takes over the cell and causes the cell to start producing viral copies -​ Produces so many viral copies the cells bursts and goes to infect other cells -​ Symptoes will start right away Lysogenic -​ Tail fibers attach to cell -​ Infuse DNA -​ Viral DNA INCORPERATES ITS SELF IN TO THE HOST CELL’s DNA -​ That viral DNA then gets reproduced through the cells mitosis and stays under the radar undetected until oit turns lytic -​ It multiples unknowingly until it turns lytic and then there are already so many in the organism Treatment -​ There is no treatment for virsus only prevention as antibiotics do not work on virsuses -​ Vaccines use a harmless variant of the virus to build a humans immune system to the virus for if it is exposed in a non controlled environment 3 ways bacteria can be helpful -​ Nitrogen fixation- decompose dead organisms and the nitrogen from them seeps into soil -​ In food we eat like milk -​ Can clean up oil spills Barrier between species and reproduction 1.​ Physical barriers- things like size prevent mating 2.​ Mating occurs but offspring doe snot survive- this is because of chromosomal differences 3.​ Mating occurs but offspring in infertile- donkeys and horses make a mule but that mule can not reproduce making it not successful offspring 4.​ Geographical barriers- SOme species, like polar bear and grizzly bears, do no come in to contact with each, but now they are coming into contant and creating a prizzly bear 5.​ Behavioural barriers- some organisms will only mate if they see certain behaviours in their partner like peacocks and their feathers.  Circulatory System ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------U3-- Pulmonary system This is the right side of the heart -​ Deals with deoxygenated blood being oxygenized -​ Right atrium recieves deoxy blood from vein cava -​ Then goes to right ventricle through tricuspid valve -​ Right ventricle contracts it through the pulmonary semi lunar valve. -​ Goes through pulmonary arteries to the lungs -​ At aliveoi they exchange co2 o be exhaled and o2 goes in to the blood, carried on hemoglobin and some plasma (externak respiration) -​ Return to the heart, left atrium, oxygenated, rid of Co2 through the pulmonary vein Systematic system -​ Left atium has oxygenated blood -​ Contracts in to left ventricle through mitral valve -​ The left ventricle and its thick walls contact through the aortic valve -​ The oxy blood goes through atrieries to capilairies and services cells. -​ Cells use the O2 from RBC and the nutrients in plasma, that the blood obtain through going through the hepatic portal and obtianing them from the villi, micrtovilii and folds in the small intestine -​ Cell does cellulkar respiration for ATP -​ THe cells then diffuses the CO2 it creates as a byproduct though the capillary in to the blood, plsama, HCO3 -​ Then goes up veins and returns to the heart Cornry system -​ This services the hearts own muscles and cells, the myoicardium. -​ Backflow and clogging of these arteries leads to heart attack Compoundets of blood Living -​ RBC 44% -​ Wbc 1% -​ Platelets 1% Non living 55% It is 90% MADE OF WATer(why water is so important) Plasma is what the blood componets are carried and transported through, it is needed for transportation and dehydration effects it leading to higher BP and less efficient nutrient transportation. As well as a higher blood PH due to electrolyght balance in the plasma being thrown off causing headaches and nausea The blood -​ Transports nutrients waste hormones -​ Transports body heat through vasodilating and vasoconstricting to protect organs RBC -​ Also called erythrocytes -​ They carry hemoglobin, which carry o2 to body cells and some co2 to lungs -​ Are biconcave inorder to carry more hemoglobin and have more SA -​ The live 120 days -​ Low number of RBC or hemoglobin is called anemia WBC -​ Also calles leukocytes -​ They fight infection of -​ Bacteria -​ Viruses -​ Tumors -​ Parasites Leukocytosis -​ This is the increase in WBC when infection is present Phagocytosis -​ This is how WBC actually kill microorganisms by killing and eating them -​ It causes death of the WBC Pus -​ It is the collection of dead WBC Platlets -​ Cell fragments -​ Are needed for blood clotting -​ Sticky Hemostasis Process of blood clotting  -​ 1. Vascular spasm, the blood vessel will start to spasm and contrict to lim it blood flow and loss -​ 2. Platlet plug, platlets in the blood will become activated when bind to the broken collagen fibers of the Blood vessel trappign some RBCs and keeping the opening closed -​ 3. Coagulation- this is when fibrinogen turns in to fibrin. This fibrin then creates a mesh work around the platelets anchoring the BV closed Hemotophosios -​ This is the creation of WBC RBC and Platelets -​ Happens in bone marrow -​ They come from the stem cell hemocytoblasts Blood vessels Arteries -​ Go away from the heart -​ Have thicker walls due to the fact they face higher blood pressure -​ They are more elastic because they face higher blood pressure -​ Smaller lumen -​ Usally carry oxygenated blood -​ Blood pressure repersents the pressure which the blood puts on the arteries, this is what keeps the blood moving Veins -​ Go toward the heart -​ Usally carry deoxy blood -​ Have valves because they go against gravity so it prevents back flow -​ Thinner walls due to less BP -​ Bigger lumen -​ Uses help from muscles like calves to help push blood up back to the heart Capilirares -​ One cell layer thick -​ They are thin and are the only thing which allows for diffusion -​ RBC’s go one by one to allow for fully o2 and co2 diffusion -​ Diffuse nutrients like glucose and ammino acids as well as o2 and co2 Capillary beds Found over every organ -​ Have the ability to vascular shunt and redirect blood flow to areas that need it more Hepatic portal -​ This is the blood vessel that supplies nutrients to the digestive system  -​ This is also how the blood, plasma, obtain nutrients like glucose, ammino acids, F.A and glycoreol, from the villi microvilli and folds in Small intestine and obtain water and electrolgihts from the large intestine -​ This nutrient rich blood goes to the liver before leaving the hepatic portal to ensure nutrients are balanced Blood pressure -​ This is what keeps blood moving even in between heart beats -​ It is the pressure that the blood puts on the artieries -​ It is systolic over diastolic -​ Systolic is the pressure when the ventricle are dipolarizing (QRS complex) going to be higher -​ Diastolic is the pressure when ventricles are repolarizaing(T wave) -​ Normal is 120/80 -​ the machine which measures this is a sphygmomanometer Heart facts -​ Tachycardia is over 100 BMP -​ Bradycardia is under 60 BPM -​ Lub dub is the sound of the AV valves then the semi lunar valves Cardiac output -​ This is how much blood goes through the heart in a minute -​ It is calculated by stroke volume* heart rate= cardiac output -​ Stroke volume is EDV- ESV -​ Factors effecting HR are stress, hormones, fitness and age -​ Factors effecting SV is age, heart size, duration of contraction, age, gender fitness -​ This messures the effeciency of the heart -​ Ex. EDv=250 ESV= 20 -​ SV= 230* 60= … Structure and function Apex points to left hip Base points to right shoulder The pericardium is the sac which the heart sits in. it prevents friction it would endure during heartbeats from the ribs (it is the same thign as the pleura for the lungs) Heart walls 1.​ Epicrdium- outer most lawyer 2.​ Myocardium- serviced by the coronary arteries 3.​ Endocardium- lines heart 4 chambers Right atria -​ Receives deoxy blood from the vein cava -​ Contacts the blood throguh trocuspid in to right venticle Right ventricle -​ Contracts blood through the pulmonary valve to the pulmonary artierties to the lungs to be oxygenized and for the blood to realese Co2 (external respiration) LEft Atrium -​ Receives oxygenated blood from the pulmonary veins -​ Contacts throguh mitral valve to the left ventricle Left ventricle -​ With its thick walls contacts in to the aortic valve -​ This blood will go to serivces the body cells Intrinsci conduction system 1.​ SA node -​ This is known as the pace maker of the heart -​ It releases the first impulse which causes the contraction of the atriums -​ It is the most important as it sets the hearts rhythm 2.​ AV node -​ It picks up on the SA nodes impulse and DELAYs the impulse from continuing -​ This is very important as this delay ensures that the atriums and ventricles do not contract at the same time but instead the ventricles wait till they are filled and the AV valves close -​ This ensures ethe heart runs efficiently, which is measured through cardiac output 3.​ Bundle of His -​ This AV send the signal throught he bundle of His which goes through the introvascualr septum -​ Splits in to two lines 4.​ Left and right bundles -​ The left and right bundles wrap around each of the ventricles spreadiogn the electrical impulse 5.​ The perkenji fibers  -​ These fibers help to further spread the the electrical signal around the ventricles to ensure that it has enough power, since the ventricles need the most amount of force as the left ventricle has to push blood all across bod. This electic impulse cuases the depolarizeation and contraction of the ventricles. -​ As the ventricals get repolarized(relaxed) the atria’s are depolarizing and visa versa. -​ They need to repolarize so they can fill with as much blood as possibly and relaxation maximiazes volume -​ Stroke volume is diastolic(EDV, relaxed) amount of blood in the ventricles after contraction- (systolic end volume ). Messure the efficiency of the hearts pumps -​ Cardaic output is stroke volume times HR. This intrinsic conduction system is measure dthorugh a ECG -​ ECG P= dipolarization of the atrium QRS= dipolarization of the ventricles T= repolarization of ventricles -​ If this ECG is to slow then not enough blood is gettign otu of the heart to the body -​ If it is to fast it is tachycardia to slwo is bradycardia Types of blood THerer are 4 types A B AB and O Blood types Group A B AB O  Type Has antigen A Has Antigen B Has antigen AB No antigen Antibodies Antibody b Antibody a No antibodies A and B present antibodies THe only thign that differs form blood type to blood type is the antigens present on the RBC -​ Antigens are proteins and the different types have different receptors -​ Because they have differe3rnt receptors, the antigens of the antibodies can not match those of the RBC as of they do it will attack. ‘That is why type A blood has type B antibodies -​ ‘What that means though is if type b blood goes in to type A individual then that type B blood will be attacked -​ This is what happens in wrongful transfusions: -​ RBS are destroyed- hemolysis -​ Blood clotting -​ Kidneys are damaged due to freely floating hemoglobin -​ Type A can give to Ab and a -​ Type b can give to ab and b -​ Type ab can give to ab -​ Type O can give to all -​ Unoiversal donor is O- -​ Universal recipient is Ab+ Rh Factors -​ An additional protein on RBC -​ Some people will have RH factor just like any other antigen, like B or A -​ Those with RH will not have antibodies for RH -​ THose without RH with ALSO NOT HAVE ANTIBODIES FOR RH -​ However, when a none RH person comes in to contact with RH blood, the body will develop antibodies to the RH+ blood now -​ Second exposure is treated as wrongful trasfustion and RBC are destroyed … Pregnancy -​ This can be evry dangerous in pregnancy as in second exposure to RH and if a - mother has her 2nd RH positive baby then her RBc will go across over during labour and can attack the baies RBC which is deadly Transportation -​ O2 is transported mainly on Hemoglobin but some in plasma -​ CO2 mainly transported in the plasma as HCO3 so PH is not effected but some in on the hemoglobin -​ Nutrients like Glucose are carried in the Plasma Immunity -​ The body will develop antibodies when it is exposed to a a substance like virus or bacteria -​ The WBC and antibodies are incharge of this immunity -​ This is why vaccines work as the body is developing antibodies of the virus -​ WBC produce these antibodies -​ The antibodies that fight blood infections are natural -​ But ones like RH factor and vaccines must be developed Importance of water’ -​ Water make up most of plasma -​ Without water the volume of plasma decreases -​ Leads to higher blood [pressure which increases heart attack risk. This is because there is less water in the blood leading to thicker blood -​ Effects transportation of nutrients makes them slower and can lead to sluggish individuals -​ Can lead to increase chance of blood clots -​ Water in plasma is important for the blood ph. Without it electrolytes are thrown out of balance and blood PH can be effected leading to vomiting. known as metabolic acidosis. the electrolytes and less plasma means co2 can not transported as bicarbonate ion which means the co2 directly effects the blood and its ph levels negatively causing ph to be more acidic leading to headaches but keeping hydrated ensures plasma levels stay adequate and help in reducing blood pressure, risk of blood clot effective nutrient transportation and ph Cellular respiration -​ All 3 systems of the body work together in order for cellular respiration. -​ Cardiovascular transports all the needed nutrients like oxygen(hemoglobin) and glucose, amino acids, F.A and glycerol to the cells for cellular respiration(explain how those are absorbed) -​ It then diffuses these nutrients through the capillaries in to the cells -​ Then cardio vascular system then transports the waste that is a result of cellular respiration, the making of ATP, which is CO2 -​ THis Co2 gets transported out via plasma, HCO3 and hemoglobin to lungs to be exhaled  Respiratory system ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------U4-- Strucutre and function Nasal cavity -​ Where air first enters respiratory track. -​ Lined with cillia which help to filter the hair before reaches the lungs and aliveolito prevent dieases -​ Have thin walled veins which help to moisten and warm the air which is needed so the air ways stay moist and cillia do not crack, as well as allowing for good gas exchanged Cillited mucosa Lines the trachea and the nasal cavityt -​ Traps dust and debris from going down in to the alveoli sacs as that would harm gas exchange -​ It also moistens the inco,ing air to help keep the airways moist and not cracking -​ This is why water is important for the respiratory system -​ The movement of these cilia pushes debris up to the pharynx to be swallowed -​ Coughing pushes debris which got passed up to cillia which then swing the debris to the pharynx Oral cavity -​ Maximizes oxygen in and and co2 out Pharnyx -​ Is a meeting place for nasal and oral -​ Also called the throat Epilgotis -​ Is a flap of cartilage -​ Found on the end of the larynx -​ It divertes air to the trachea and to the lungs and diverts food to the esophogous -​ Covers the hole called the glotis Larynx -​ Also called the voice box -​ Hosts the vocal cords -​ Has cartilage Vocol cords -​ Mucus membrane that vibrate to make noise -​ Upper respiratory track Air comes in a gets filtered warmed and moistened then goes through the pharynx and larynx Trachea -​ Also called the windpipe -​ In anterior to the esophgus -​ Has c shaped cartilage rings which kee it from collapsing -​ C shaped allow it so shrink when the esophgus does parastalsis -​ Are lined with cilia that catch debris which is coughed up. Brochi and broncholies -​ The trachea divides in to two brochi -​ Left and right bronchi go in to the left and right lungs -​ These brochi then divide in to bronchioles which lead to terminal brochines which lead to alveoli Alveoli -​ Thin walled air sacs that are thin to allow for diffusion of substances -​ They are the sight of gas exchange in the lungs -​ Make up most of the lung tissue -​ ROund and bumby to increase SA as more SA means more capillaries which means more gas exchange -​ O2 goes in to blood from inhalation -​ Co2 goes in to alveoli to be exhaled Lower respiratory track Lungs -​ Soft spongy tissue that holds all the organs -​ Take up all thoracic cavity expect mediastum for the heart Pleura membrane -​ The membrane sac which lines the lungs -​ Allows them to expand and breath without causing friction Diaphram and external intercostal muscles These are the muscles which are responsible for inhalation  -​ The contracting of these muscles raises volume in thoracic cavity, lowering pressure, allowing for air to enter the lungs -​ THe diaphragm is naturally a dome shape, but when it contract it becomes straight. 4 phases of respiration 1.​ Pulmonary ventilation Both types have volume changes pressure changes in the thoracic cavity and gas exchange Inspiration -​ This is when Oxygen from the outside air enters the respiratory track and reaches the aliveoli -​ The diaphragm and the external inercostal muscles contract which causes the volume in the thoracic cavity to increase -​ THis volume increase leads to a pressure decrease -​ Allowing the air to go from a high to a low level fo density Expiration -​ Passive process -​ The diaphragm and external intercostal muscles relax -​ This causes volume to decrease(because diaphragm is going back to the dme shape) -​ And pressure to increase in thorastuc cavity -​ Resulting in to CO2 which the blood diffusded in to the alveoli to leave the lungs through the nasal or oral cavity -​ When exhale differs from the tidal volume and becomes forceful the interal intercostal muscles are used Respitory capacity -​ The amount of air which is exchange under different conditions -​ Factors like fitness level age gender size TLC Tidal volume -​ Amount of air that is exchanged during normal queiot breathing around 500ml Reserve volumes IRV -​ How much can be inhaled forcefully -​ Uses diaphragm and external intercostal muscles -​ Around 2100 3200 ERV -​ How muhc can be forcefully exhaled -​ IS NOT PASSIVE, uses internal intercostal muscles -​ Around 1200ml Residual volume -​ How much air is left over after ERV -​ This keep the alvoeli from collapsing inbetween breathes -​ Surfactant also keeps alveoli open VItal capacity -​ How much air can be exchanged from lungs to outside -​ TV+IRV+ERV -​ No residual volume due to the fact it can not be exchanged TLC -​ INCLUDES ALL EVEN RESIDUAL VOLUME. 2.​ External respiration -​ This happens at the alveoli -​ Deoxygenated blood gets pumped by the right venticle through the pulmonary truck to the pulmonary arteries -​ These pulmonary arteries lead to the capillaries surrounding the round bumpy side of the alveoli -​ The blood enters the capliries where it diffuses the CO2 it has thorough the capillary to the alveoli, which will be exhaled -​ The oxygen which the lungs have inhaled then gets diffused through the capitalries in to the blood, which is carried mainly on hemoglobin but some is dissolved in the plasma -​ In both cases the co2 and o2 are going from low to high environments -​ This blood then returns to the heart, the left atrium, to be pumped to the rest of the body 3.​ Gas transport Co2 is transported in the blood mianly in the plasma -​ From when it is abosrbed at body cells as a result of cellular respiration, the plasma turns the co2 in to bicarbonate ion, HCO3, -​ HCO3 is also used in the digestive system when the acidic chyme enters the doudenum throught he phyloric syninter it is met with HCO3 which is used to make the acidic chyme more basic -​ It is used in gas trasport similarly as it ensures the ph of the blood does not chnage -​ Some co2 will be carried by hemoglobin on RBC as well -​ O2 is carried on the RBC’s hemoglobin, -​ 4 molecules can be on each hemoglobin and 1 billion on each rbc -​ Some o2 is transported in the plasma -​ Nutrients like glucose, ammino acids, F.As and glycerol(monomers) as well as electrolytes are tranported by the plasma -​ Electrolthys in the plasma are important as when someone is dehydrated and is not getting the electrolthys they need, the volume of plasma gets smaller -​ blood gets thicker resulting in -​ INCREASE BP -​ HIGHER RISK OF BLOOD CLOT -​ WORSE NUTRIENT TRANSPORTATIOn(mor3e sluggish) -​ And can result in higher ph levels of CO2 in the blood causing symptomes like headchae and vomiting 4.​ Internal respiration -​ Happens at body cells -​ Blood is transported through artieries to the capillaries -​ at capillaries they diffuse nuuteients and O2 to the cell to make ATP -​ ATP is made and diffuses the CO2 which is a toxic by product diffuses in to the blood -​ Gets tranported back to heart, then lungs to be exhaled and cycle repeats COntreol of respiration -​ The pons and medualla are found in the brain stem and control respiration -​ there are stretch receptors that are found on the alveoli which automatically send signals to the pons and medulla on breathing rate Infants -​ Infants lungs often do not inflate until they are 2 weeks old  -​ So it is very important that they do not get sick as that would lower their respitaory levels and amount of oxygen they can bring in psosibly harming brain development PRe mature babies -​ Babies bron before 37 weeks will often not have surfactant developed -​ This surfactant lowers air liquid tension in the lungs and prevents the alveoli from collapsing after expiration -​ Premature babies will often need breathing devices Water is important for the plasma -​ Water makes up most of plasma -​ Dehydration = less plsama -​ Less plamasa means more dense blood -​ Thick blood increases blood pressure -​ Increased risk of blood clots -​ Worse nutrient transportation -​ Less plasma means the components of blood are more dense -​ This means the electrolughys balance is off -​ Electrothyes play a import role in managing blood ph and muscle movemnts -​ Enusing we are hydrated keeps this plasma level regular allowing the body to function better Respitory systems in cellular respiration -​ Brings in the o2 needed for cellular respiration -​ Expels the toxic by product of CO2 which is produced as a reuslt of this ATP process -​ Without this expelling thew blood wopuld get to rich with co2 leading to death. -​  DIGESTIVE SYSTEM ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------U5-- THE 5 Main Functions Ingestion -​ Occurs at the mouth, oral cavity -​ When food first eneter the alminary cancal -​ The this in the mouth is both chmeically and mechnacical digestive, -​ Chemically by salivary amylase which digests carbohydrates and mechandicaly byt he hard and soft pallet, teeth and tongue. -​ Those same structures which mechanically digests the food, turn it in to a bolus -​ This bolus is then INGESTED and goes down the pharynx through to the esophgous -​ This action is voluntary and the only other thign which is voluntary after is defection Propolsion -​ This is how food is moved throughout the digestive system. It will mainly take form through peristalsis -​ Peristalsis is a muscle contractio which contacts like a wave. It controls the foods movemvents by pushing then catch it -​ In the mouth the tongue palates propel food by swallowing it through the pharynx to the esophgous -​ In the esophogus, food moves via perisstaisis. This is important so that food does not just fall down in through the cardiac sphincter as that would causes acid reflux and heart burn from the splash of hydrocholric acid found in gastric juices -​ In the stomach the muscle walls go through peristalic muscle contrations which do not only propel the food through the stomach but also help to mechanically digest the food and increase its SA to turn it in to chyme then slowly push it through phyloric sphincter -​ In the doudenum and small intestine, chyme will also be moved via persistaisis at a pace where the nutrients can be absorbed by the villi ect. -​ Peristalisis continues through the cecum in to the large intestune -​ The lasat propulsion is defecation where remaining water and unwanted nutrients leave ther rectum through the anus -​ This feces leaving as remain in the large int long enough to have some water removed, ensuring the feces is not similar to diheara and it is sold waste Mechanical digesiton -​ Occurts all throughout Gi Track -​ Starts in the mouth with the teeth, tongue and palate turning food in the bolus to be swallowed  -​ The persistalsis in the esophogus has some mechandical digestion as well breaking any bigger pieces up -​ The stomach’s muscle walls, oblique, circular and longitudinal crush and mush the bolus in to chyme, the aicd in gastric juices, produced by gastric pits, secreted by hormone gastrin, also helps with the mechandial digestion in to chyme -​ In duodenum, the bile is released from the liver -​ Bile is not a enzyme and it emulsifys fats for lipase to have a easier job digesting them -​ Persistalsis in the small intestine will finish any mechandical digested, yet all mechandical digestion will be done after bile -​ Overall the goal of mechanical digestion is to increase SA for enzymes to have a easier time Chemical digestion -​ Also happens throughout GI track’ -​ Starts in mouth with salivary amylazse which starts digestion of Carbs -​ Carbs make glucose which is most important nutrient for ATP which is why the digestion starts first -​ This salivary amylase is made by salivary glands(3 of them) and can be found in saliva -​ In the stomach, produced by the gastric pits, there is pepsinogen in the gastric juices -​ In these juices contains: intrinsic factor, Gastrin(controls amount of juices, hormone) Pepsnogen, Protective mucus to line stomach from, HYdro cholric acid -​ When pepsinogen comes in to contact with low ph, hydrochloric acid, it turns in to pepsin, whcih then starts protein digestion -​ In the duodenum all pancreatic enzymes are released through the pancreatic duct -​ The are carried in pancreatic juices, which also has bicarbonate acid to nuetralize incoming acidic chyme. -​ THese enzymes include Trypsin which digest proteins -​ Lipase which digest fats -​ And pancreatic amylase which digests carbs -​ There are also more protease that are not important -​ Bursh border enzymes can be found on the ends on micro villi which also help to finish the digestion of carbohydrates and proteins to be absorbed. -​ Most chemical digestion will occur in duodenum -​ No more digestion in large INT and no enzymes -​ The goal of chemical digestion is to cgemically break down nutrients from polymer to monomer so that cells can use the monomers to create ATP and grow, repair and maintain themselves and their structure because cells can not break them down themselves Absorption -​ This will occurnin the small int -​ Most absorption will occur in the jejnum of the small intestine and the rest will happen in the ileum  -​ The intestine maximizes the absorption by having structures that increase SA -​ This is because the more surface area there is the more capillaries there are for diffusion of nutrients -​ The stcutres which do this are: -​ Villi- finger like projects that come out the side of the intestinal walls -​ Microvilli- found on the tips of villi, further increase absorption -​ Pilcae circulars(folds in intestine) -​ The monomers of nutrients(ammino acids, glucose, F.A and glycersol) are all absorbed and the polymers are not, they are broken down to these polymers. They will be absorbed through the capillaries in the cardio vascualr system -​ BUT SOME FATS ARE ABSORBED BY THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM -​ The large intestine will absorb water and electotyes(these elctroytes are very important for plasma and hydration to keep plasma volume high) -​ High plasma volume leads to better blood flow and lower blood pressure because there is more liquid in the plasma therefore more blood. When someone is dehydrated, their plasma levels drop which leads thicker blood whcih causes: -​ Higher BP -​ Increase blood clot risk -​ Worse nutrient transportation -​ It also throws off electrolytes as electrolytes are carried in the plasma which there is less of resulting in PH fluctuations (rise) and worse muscle movements( as electortyes are important for muscles) -​ The large int will absorb these water and elctrotyes which will result in a feces starting to be formed -​ This feces is made up of leftover water and un absorbed nutrients Defecation -​ Ithe feces is then defecated after being stored in the rectum -​ It leaves through the anus in a mosit feces which the large intestine try to creat to ensure to diharia happens Macromolecues -​ Protiens- 26 amino acids -​ Carbs- glucose -​ Fats- 3 F.A and glycerol -​ These monomers are used for cells to grow, maintain and repair themselves -​ They do this by being used to create ATP in cellular respiration’ Parts of digestive system -​ Primary organs are organs which food directly passes through Mouth -​ Involved with mechandical digestion by turning food into bolus -​ Salvia which contains amylase for digestion of carbs -​ Is the place of ingestion Esophogus -​ Goes through muscle lwave contractio called persistalsis -​ This is so fodo does not just fall down throat leading to acid refukx -​ Water and mositure is very important for esohogus to allow foods with high viscosity, like peanut butter, be pushed down effectively Stomach -​ J shaped -​ Has two sphincters, cardiac and phyloric -​ Has 3 ucle layers, oblique longitudinal and circular which contract perisitalicly to create chyme -​ Also has gastric pits which contain gastric juices: -​ Intrinsic factor -​ Hydrochloric acid- helps to kill bacteria which might be on food and turn food in to chyme -​ Pepsinogen- turns in to pepsin and digests proteins when comes in to contact with acid -​ Gastrin- to release more gastric juices when food is present -​ Protective mucus for stomach rptection from acids -​ Slowly release the acidic chyme in to the duodenum Small int Duodenum -​ Fist part of small intestine -​ Connected to the phyloric sphincter -​ Where most DIGESTION occurs -​ The chyme is immediately neutralized by intestinal juices created by glands that contain water and alkaline mucus -​ Pancreatic juices contain bicarbonate ion which also helps to neutralize the acid -​ It must be neutralized because the duodnum does not have as strong protective mucus like the stomach does -​ These jucies also contain enzymes like Trypsin, pancreatic amylazse and lipase which chemically digest proteins, carbs and fats -​ Bile is also brought in which mechanically emulsifies fats -​ All these enzymes and bile are released via CCK and SECRETIN -​ Also has brush border enzymes to finish digestion Jejnuem  -​ Where most absorption occurs via the villi, micro villi, and pilcae circulars -​ Fats are absorbed to lymphatic system and rest are circulatory system Illiuem -​ Last part of small int -​ Absorption of monomers is finished -​ Connects to cecum via the illecosol valve Mesentary -​ The protective lining of the intestines which holds them in place and the hepatic portal runs through it LArge intestine(cecum, appendix, ascending colon, transversal colon, descending colon, sigmoid colon and rectum and anus) -​ Will absorb water and electrolytes which helped to move the chymke throughout digestive system and help with the digestion of nutrients -​ The ilecoecal valve prevents back flow of nutrients back to small int -​ Absorption of water creates a feces which is sotre in rectum then expled -​ The primary function is to propel this feces to the anus to be expeled and to absorb water and minerals which is what creates this solid feces in the first place Appendix -​ Safe house for bacteria -​ After infection and all good and bad bacteria leave, it replenishes the good bacteri to help with digestion Recutm -FInal storage place for feces before it is expled Non primary organs -​ Organs that do not directly pass nutrients Liver -​ Largest internal organ -​ Produce and stores(some) Bile which enters duodenum via bile duct and hormones CCK and Sectrein -​ Bile emuilspihies fat -​ Also filters nutrients which are leaving the hepatic portal before returning to the heart -​ Like balances glucose levels to ensure blood is balanced Pancreas -​ Produce pancreatic juices: -​ Bicarbonate ion to neutralize acidic chyme -​ Trypsin- to digest proteins in basic environemnt -​ PAncreatic amylase- to digest carbs -​ Lipase- to digest fats after bile -​ These are all released by CCK and Scrtien -​ Also produces important hormones Insulin and glucagon which control blood sugar -​ Whcih BS is high insluin will be released and tell body to store the sugar as fat for later use -​ This is because sugar floating in blood not being used will start to harden leading to blood clotting -​ Glucagon will realse the stored sugar when needed for cellular respiration and ATP making Gallbaldder -​ Stores bile produced by liver -​ Realse it through bile duct in to doudenum -​ Is not needed for survival byt helps digesting fatty meals Hormones in digestion -​ GAsterin which monitors and controls the amount of gastric juices in the stomach. It will realse fmore when food is present and stop when food is not present -​ It technically starts protein digestion as it releases pepsinogen-> turns in to pepsin with acid and starts digesting proteins -​ And the protective mucus that is found in the gastric juices as well CCK and sectetin -​ Realsesl enzymes like Trypsin, Pancreatic amylase and Lipase from pancreas to duodeum -​ Also realses bile from liver/ gallbladder -​ When chyme passes phyloric sphincter is when these hormones activate Inuslin -​ Lowers blood sugar after meal hen nto being used to ensre sugar does not harden -​ Stores this BS for later use Glucagon -​ Releases this stored sugar when needed, liek when exercises to give cells the materials they need to make ATP -​ Raises BS Enzymes Pepsin Pancreatic amylase Slavary amylase Typsin Lipase Importance of water -​ Water aids with digestion -​ It helps the movemnt of food throguhout the Gi track and an help food’s with high viscosity go down the esophogus -​ It helps with the breaking down of nutrients and making chyme -​ Also helps to spread out digestive enzymes to help with digestion -​ so that chyme moves well through the intestines and ensures that constipation does not occur keeping the GI tracka nd colon heathy -​ Helps to mositen food in the mouth VIa salvia and help to spread out the slavery a,amylase to start that carbothydate digestion Cellular respiration -​ Provides the nutreints which are needed for cellualr respiration -​ The system breaks down polymers in to monomers(ammino acids , glusocse, fa and glycersol) so that cells can use them to help make ATP -​ They break them down becuase cells are to simply and small to break them down themselves -​ Glucose escpaiclly is extermly imporant for this ATP making as glucose and o2 arew most important -​ Of digestive system did not digest polymers to monomers the ATP prodcuiton would nto work -​ As polymers would be absorbed not monomers -​ The digestive system has special strucutres in order to maximize absorption -​ These include villi micro villi and instesinal folds -​ Without these special addapted stcutres absoption could not happen as effectivly and as a result cellular respiration could not happen as much and as fast Ph chnages -​ In stomach it is low due to hydrocholric acid but that is okay ebcause it has mucus -​ Byt esophgus does not whcih is why heart burn happens fromthe acid whcih jumps through cardiac sphincter  -​ Chyme is neutralize goign thoguht phyloric sphincter in to the duodenum via HC03 form pancreas- water and alkinline mucus from glands -​ Duodenum does not have the protective mucus like stomach doe swhich is why neutilization is needed GENETICS ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------U6-- Mitosis -​ Creates somatic cells(body cells) -​ Goes through P.M.A.T once -​ Creates 2 identical cells -​ Needed for growth and repair -​ Forms dipolids 2n Meiosis -​ Creates gametes -​ Sperm in male eggs in females -​ 4 non identical cells -​ P.M.A.T twice -​ Increases genetic diversity(crossing over, independent) -​ Forms haploids n Terms to know Chromosome- condensed DNA DNA_ made of nucleic acids and proteins, carries genetic material Gene- is a strand of DNA that code for a specific trait Genetic sequence- the sequence which the bases( A-T G-C) line up in, which codes for a specific protein to be made, each codon codes for a protein Codon- 3 bases in a row Chromatid- one half of a chromosome(can be its won chromosome) Chromatin is uncondensed dna Centromere- Chromosomes are counted by the centromere -​ This is why interphase does not raise # of chromosomes only chromatid -​ Also why in anaphase 2 chromatid numbers are split but not chromosomes Centromere- middle part of the chromosome that spindle fibers connect to Diploid- a cell with full genetic information(stomatic) Haploid- cell with half genetic information( reproductive, 23) MEiosis Interphase -​ Has 3 stages G1, S, G2 -​ In interphase the cell will go through regular cell functions like production of ATP/ cellular respiration which is only able to happen due to the respiratory, digestive and circulatory system working together to provide nutrients for atp and the waste removal of byproduct -​ Cell will duplicate DNA -​ Get ready for meiosis via storing up energy Prophase 1(very important_ -​ Chromosomes line up in their homologous pairs -​ Homologous pairs means pairs that are the same size, and same genes but different genetic information( ex different alleles for those genes) -​ These homologous pairs then cross over -​ This crossing over essentially transfers genetic information from one chromosome to another and they trade information randomly. -​ This creates a randomness in genetic material known as genetic diversity -​ This is why siblings are different to each other and different from their parents, because in crossing over alleles are randomly traded making these unique combinations -​ This is also partly everything is a probability because law of segregation and this randomness Metaphase 1 -​ Homologous pairs then line up in their pairs of 2 at the middle of the cell -​ Lining up in pairs of two is very important as these 2’s ensure the number of chromosomes splits in two from 46-23 per cell -​ The lining up in a random order that does not influence other chromosomes also contributes to this randomness of traits known as independent assortment Anaphase 1 -​ The spindle fibers then pull whole chromosomes away from the middle to the end of the cell Telophase 1 -​ Nuclei start to form around the chromosomes  -​ Cleavage starts to form and the cell splits into 2 haploids, however these haploid still have 46 chromatids and need to split again Prophase 2 -​ Nuclear membrane fades and spindle fibers form Metaphase 2 -​ The chromosomes line up in single file line (ensure chromatid split in half not chromosomes) Anaphase -​ Single chromatid are pulled away, splitting the centromere in to half keeping # of chromosomes but splitting the number of chromatid Telophase 2 -​ In both of the cells the nuclei form around chromatid -​ Then both of the cells split, this results in 4 new cells, all haploid all wth 23 chromosomes -​ All different from the starting cell and from each other due to crossing over and independent assortment Nondisjunction -​ This is a type of chromosomal mutation which occurred during meiosis -​ This happens when the chromosomes do not separate correctly in anaphase 1 or 2 -​ It results in one of the cells gaining or losing one chromosome -​ What this results in is in the 4 cells when meiosis is finished, one cell will have 45 chromosomes and one will have 46 chromosomes, or 2 2 will have 45 and 2 will have 47, depends on if it is a 1 or a 2 -​ this results in a trisomy -​ -​ The gametes with 45 chromosomes would not be able to survive -​ But the ones with 47 would, which results in disorders liek down synrode POINT MUTATIONS 1.​ Deletion -​ This is when one of the bases is deleted from the genetic sequencing -​ It results in all the bases being moved back one, total changing all the codons and resulting in different amino acids being made 2.​ Substitution -​ This is when a base is substituted for another base replace it and its pair -​ Results in the change of only the one codon 3.​ insertion -​ This is when a base pairing is inserted in a place where it should not be -​ Resulting in all the codons being moved forward and off  -​ -​ As seen these mutations can totally change the amino aicds which are formed GREGOR MENDEL -​ He is often called the father of genetics -​ He study pea plants ans how they grew -​ He used pea plants because they: -​ Where easy to grow -​ He could control their reproduction -​ Fast growing -​ Easily available He first created two lines of plants, both true breeding, one tall, one short True breeding meands evrytiem they would reproduce the outcome would be the same, tall and short. He then crossed these two generations together, the p gen, and it resulted in all of spring being tall He thought the short trait was no gone, but he let the F1 generation reproduce on their own This resulted in one out of every 4 being short(tt) EXPLINATION The p generation was TT and tt TT=TALl tt= short Tall is the dominate allele so the f1 generation was all Tt, meaning all the phenotypes were tall, however, what gregor realised was that the short allele was still there, just being over shadowed by the tall one This made him come up with his theories 1.​ Law of segregation 0 this states that the alleles which code for the cetian phenotype of the trait are randomly separated in to the gamates -​ That each gamates will have 1 allele for a trait and the other allele will come from the other parent -​ This results in 2 alleles for each trait -​ However how this happens is random which is why everything is probability \ 2.​ Principle of independent assortmernt -​ Thai says traits are not linked together and have no influence on eachother -​ Just because i am blonde does not mean i have to have blue eyes’ -​ This can be seen in meiosis when the chormosmes line iup in random ordering not influencing eachother in metaphase 1, this randomness creates genetic diversity and differences in offspring, which ties back to charles darwin of allowing for adaptation to best survive environments as those best suited for their environment will survive and by being slightly different it increase that chance of being better for surivivle 3.​ The principle of dominance and ressivness -​ Gregor mendel claimed that traits have two different types of alleles. -​ A allele is just a different form of a gene which as come up through mutation to help species survive better in its environment -​ This principle says that if one allele, the dominant allele is present, the tall allele, will be shown if it is presnet in the genotype. -​ This means the only way for the resseive allele t show is if it is homozygous recesivve HOWEVER as technology got better, scientists were able to look moer indepth in to genetics and noticed certain laws and traits that defied this idea of the 3 mendel laws  1.​ Incomplete dominance -​ This states that neither of the alleles in the genotype are dominant, instead they both act as recessive. For eithe4r of them to show they have to be homozygous. If the genotype is heterozygous then the result will be a blend, like mix paint, of both the alleles. Where the ability to spot either allele in the phenotype will not be possible -​ Ex. white RR and black is rr. When heterozyous Rr is creates a grey, a perfect blend of both 2.​ COdominace -​ Often mistaken with incomplete dominance, Codominace is when both alleles are dominant. It results in both alleles being expressed when the Genotype is heterozygous -​ It is written in capital letters -​ Ex. BB= black WW= white BW= spotted black and white 3.​ Polygenetics -​ This is when there is more then just one allele pair that determines a trait -​ A example of this is height andn eye colour, which are on specturms and require more then 2 alleles -​ Another example is blood type, which has 3 alleles, IA IB and i. THis is unique because ia and ib are codominat as well 4.​ Epystasis -​ This is when one trait is coempletly dependant on another trait to actually be exporessed. -​ This refutes independent assortment as traits are linked together -​ Even though the genotype is not affected the phenotype is -​ Ex BB is black and WWor Ww means that the colour will be shown -​ BBWW= black -​ BBww= albino There are more factor then just genotype. There is also environmental factor like nutrition How do disorders like down syndrome occur? Disroders like down syndrome are results of having extra chromosomes present on 1-22 autosome chromosomes pair. The way that a extra chromosme ends up on this pair is called non disjuction. This is a type of chromsomal mutation thay occurs during meosis. Meosis is the creation of gamates, sex cells that are hapolids(cells with half the genetic information). It creates unidectical cells as a result of independat assortment and crossing over. Different alleles, a mutation of a gene, and chromosomes will eneter in to the gamates randomly, this is the principle of segregation. In non disjuction, during anaphase 1 or 2, as mesois goes through p.m.a.t Twice a extra chromsome will be pulled to the end of one cell and the other side of the cell will reuslt in having one less chromsome. This results in a aneuploids and one gamate being a trisomy. The gamate with 47 chromosomes will be viable, however the gamate with 45 chromosomes. If a egg is fertalized with a gamate with 45 chromosomes the offspring will not survive, but if the gamate has 47 chromosomes then the offspring will survive but it will lead to disorders like down synrodme because of this extra chromosome. These mutations are examples of genetic diverisrty that occurs in people through mutations. Through point mutations genetic diversity is also increased. Which genetic diversity is needed to increase future adaptation and evolving of species to their envornemnts, in a attempt to gain more evolutionary fitness.