General Science: Biology PDF

# General Science: Biology - From two Greek words "bios" and "logos" - Literally means the "study of life" ## Branches of Biology 1. Anatomy- the study of body parts and their location 2. Physiology- the study of functions of the body parts 3. Biochemistry- the study of chemical processes and tra...

# General Science: Biology - From two Greek words "bios" and "logos" - Literally means the "study of life" ## Branches of Biology 1. Anatomy- the study of body parts and their location 2. Physiology- the study of functions of the body parts 3. Biochemistry- the study of chemical processes and transformations in living organisms 4. Cytology- the study of cells- The cell is the basic unit of life (fundamental or simplest unit of life) - Atom - Molecule - Organelle - Cell - Tissue - Organ - System - Organism 5. Ecology- study of ecosystem- (interaction between an organism and its environment) 6. Genetics- the study of genes and heredity 7. Microbiology- the study of microorganisms 8. Mycology- study of fungi 9. Phycology- study of algae 10. Parasitology- the study of parasites and their hosts 11. Taxonomy- the science of classification and naming of organisms 12. Botany- study of plants 13. Zoology- study of animals - Ethology- animal behavior - Ichthyology- fishes - Ornithology- birds - Entomology- insects # The Cellular Basis of Life 1. Robert Hooke (1665) - Discovered cell from a cork made from bark of an oak tree - Coined the term cell (cellulae), meaning small room 2. Robert Brown (1831) - Discovered the cell's nucleus ## Chemical Bases of Life "The cell consists of entirely chemical substances" Of the 118 known elements today, only 4 elements constitute about 98% of living matter: C, H, O, N. - Oxygen is most abundant element in the cell ## Macromolecules 1. Carbohydrates (Polysaccharides) 2. Nucleic acids 3. Proteins (Polypeptides) 4. Lipids ## Cell ### Cellular parts 1. The plasma membrane - Functions as a selective barrier (Semipermeable) - Control the passage of nutrients and waste - Boundary between the inside of the cell and its external environment 2. The Nucleus: Genetic Library of the Cell - Contains most of the genes (DNA- deoxyribonucleic acid) in the eukaryotic cell (command center of the cell) - Largest organelle in an animal cell 3. The Cytoplasm (Cytosol) - Jelly like fluid - Where organelles are located - Compose of water, salts, proteins, fats, carbohydrates, and other chemicals 4. Ribosomes: Protein Factories in the Cell - Carry out protein synthesis (protein factories) 5. The Endoplasmic Reticulum: Biosynthetic Factory - Is continuous with the nuclear envelope - Folded membranes that serves as channels through which materials are transported in the cell 6. The Golgi Apparatus: Shipping and Receiving Center - Manufacture, process, and package of certain macromolecules - Packaging factories of the cell 7. Mitochondria: Chemical Energy Conversion - Powerhouse of the cell - Converts food molecules into energy (ATP) through Cellular Respiration - Cellular respiration is the process that releases energy from food - The waste products of cellular respiration are water and carbon dioxide gas (CO2) 8. Lysosomes: Digestive Compartments - Garbage collector - Is a membranous sac of strong hydrolytic enzymes - Digest bacteria, other foreign substances, and worn out cell parts 9. Chloroplasts: Capture of Light Energy - Contain chlorophyll (green pigment) - Found in plants NOT in animals - Are the sites of photosynthesis - Photosynthesis- the entire process of capturing light energy to produce food- energy rich organic molecules (plants, algae, and other chlorophyll-bearing organisms) from carbon dioxide - Needed material: Sunlight, Water, Carbon dioxide - Waste product: Oxygen - End Product: Sugar (Glucose) 10. The Cell Wall - located outside the cell membrane, protective layer of the cell - Plant cell wall: made up of cellulose - Fungal cell wall: made up of chitin 11. Central vacuoles - Are found in plants - Hold reserves of important organic compounds and water - Can take up to 30%-90% of cell's volume 12. Cytoskeleton- Mechanical support, network of fibers - *Microfilaments (Actin filaments) are the thin structures essential for cytokinesis, amoeboid movement and changes in cell shape. 13. Cilium- hair-like structure - example: cilia in paramecium, fallopian tube (oviduct), lungs 14. Flagellum- whip-like structure - example: flagellum in sperm cell, euglena, bacteria ## Cellular transport 1. Passive transport 2. Active transport ### Passive transport - A diffusion of a substance across a membrane with no energy investment - CO2, H2O, and O2 easily diffuse across plasma membranes - Move from high to low concentration (concentration gradient) - Can be diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis 1. Diffusion - Is the tendency for molecules of any substance to spread out evenly into the available space 2. Facilitated diffusion - It is a type of Passive Transport Aided by transport proteins - Transport proteins speed the movement of molecules across the plasma membrane 3. Osmosis - Is the movement of water across a semipermeable membrane (diffusion of water) - Is affected by the concentration gradient of dissolved substances called the solution's tonicity - a. Hypotonic Solution - The concentration of solutes outside the cell is lower than the inside the cell - Water comes inside the cell - Clue: Turgid (Turgur Pressure- the pressure exerting on the plasma membrane against the cell wall), Swell, Burst, Lysed - b. Isotonic Solution - The concentration of solutes outside the cell is the same as it is inside the cell - There will be NO NET movement of WATER - c. Hypertonic Solution - The concentration of solutes outside the cell is greater than the inside the cell - Water goes outside the cell - Clue: Plasmolysis, Shrink, Shivel, Dehydrated ### Active transport - Uses energy to move solutes against their concentration gradients - Requires energy, usually in the form of ATP - Examples: Ion pumps, cotransport, bulk transport (exocytosis, endocytosis) ## Taxonomy ### 8 Levels of Taxonomic classification (Dear King Philip Come Over For Good Spaghetti) 1. Domain 2. Kingdom 3. Phylum 4. Class 5. Order 6. Family 7. Genus 8. Species ### Carolus Linnaeus - Father of modern Taxonomy - Proposed the binomial nomenclature # Kingdoms and Domains ## Virus - Not living, inert chemicals - Has **capsid**- protein shell that protects the virus' DNA or RNA. ## Domain Archea 1. **Kingdom Archebacteria** - They live in various places, some even in the most severe environments. - Methanogens, Halophiles and Thermophiles are examples of archeebacterial ## Domain Bacteria 1. **Kingdom Eubacteria** (Monera) - They are referred to as the true bacteria and are usually called the "bacteria" group. - Ex. Streptococcus ## Domain Eukarya 1. **Kingdom Protista** - Protozoans, diatoms, various types of algae (green, golden, brown, red algae), - Ex. Entamoeba histolytica (Amoebiasis) 2. **Kingdom Fungi** - All are heterotrophic - Fungi, molds, mushroom, yeasts, microsporidia 3. **Kingdom Animalia** - Animals consist of two major groups, the invertebrates and vertebrates. Invertebrates lack backbone which is present in vertebrates. - All are heterotrophic or consumer (it means cannot produce their own food) - a. **PORIFERA** (phylum Porifera) - pore-bearing, simplest animal; body of calcium carbonate. - Example: sponges - b. **CNIDARIA** (phylum Cnidaria)- have stinging cells (nematocyst) - Example: jellyfish, coral, hydra - c. **ARTHROPODA** (Phylum Arthropoda) – jointed legs; segmented bodies - Example: Insects- mosquito, butterflies - Crustaceans- crab, shrimps, lobsters - Arachnid- spiders - Centipede - Milipede - *Molting or Ecdysis- insects shed off their old cuticle to grow in size - d. **NEMATODA** (Phylum Nematoda) - roundworms; unsegmented - Example: pinworm, Ascaris, hookworm, filarial worm - e. **PLATYHELMINTHES** -flatworms: worms have soft tissues; unsegmented - Example: flukes, tapeworms, planaria - f. **ANNELIDA** (Phylum Annelida) - segmented worms - Example: leech, earthworms - g. **MOLLUSCA** (Phylum Mollusca) - with soft bodies (usually with shells) - Example: squids, clams, snails, octopi - h. **ECHINODERMATA** (Phylum Echinodermata) - spiny body - Example: sea star, sea urchin, sand dollars, sea cucumber, brittle star - i. **CHORDATA** (Phylum Chordata)- - *FISH (Pisces)- scales, gills and fins: shark, lampreys - *AMPHIBIANS (Amphibia)- part of their life cycle in water: frogs, caecillians, salamanders - *REPTILES (Reptilia) - eggs, scaly bodies: crocodile, snake - *BIRDS (Aves)- 2 scaly legs, wings, feathers: penguin, ostrich, duck - *MAMMALS (Mammalia) - mammary glands, hairs, milk: human, platypus, marsupials - Walrus- Marine mammals that have long ivory tusks and lives in arctic environment ## Kingdom Plantae - They are autotrophic or producer (it means they can make their own food). - Plants consist of two big groups: those which do not have tissues to transport water and food (nonvascular) and those that have this transport system (vascular) ### Nonvascular Plants - No vascular or conducting tissues - Found in moist places - Ex. Mosses, liverworts, hornworts ### Vascular Plants - Vascular plants can be: - A. Seedless vascular plants - Including club mosses, spike mosses, and quillworts - including ferns - including whisk ferns - including horsetail - B. Seed vascular plants - i. Angiosperms - Monocot - Dicot - ii. Gymnosperms - Vascular plants have xylem and phloem - a. Xylem - Conducts most of the water and minerals - b. Phloem - Distributes sugars, amino acids, and other organic products ### Seedless vascular plants - Including club mosses, spike mosses, and quillworts - including ferns - including whisk ferns - including horsetail ### Seed Vascular Plants - 1. **Angiosperms** - Most abundant and widely distributed plants - Flowering plants - Flowers contain reproductive cells - Bears fruit to protect the seed - **Plant Reproduction: Sexual Reproduction in Angiosperms** - **Flower**- reproductive organ of flowering plant - **Pollination**- transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of the flower - **Cross pollination**- from one plant to the other plant - **Self-pollination**- pollination from same flower - **The Flower** - **Sepals**, collectively called the calyx, protect the flower bud before it opens - **Petals**, collectively called the corolla - The petals often attract a particular pollinator - **Stamen**, male part - **anther**, a saclike container - **filament**, a slender stalk - **Pollen grains** develop from microspores produced in the anther - **Carpel (Pistil)**, female part - **Stigma** - **Style** - **Ovary** - 2. **Gymnosperms** - **Cone bearing plants** - **Gymnosperms have "naked seeds"** - **Seeds are not enclosed by fruit** - The four groups of living gymnosperms are conifers, cycads, ginkgoes, and gnetophytes - **Plant Reproduction: Sexual Reproduction in Gymnosperms** - **Asexual Reproduction- vegetative reproduction** - **Runners**- Horizontal stems, new roots and shoots develop at the node. Also known as stolon - strawberry, bermuda grass, bamboo grass - **Tubers**- Underground stems that store food for the plant, the "eyes" are the stem's nodes, and each eye contains a cluster of buds - Potato - **Rhizomes**- they grow as horizontal underground stem from plant to plant. Some rhizomes are compressed and fleshy. - Ginger - **Bulbs**- which are shortened, compressed underground stems surrounded by fleshy scales (leaves) that envelop a central bud at the tip of the stem - Onion, Garlic - **Corms**- another kind of underground stem, are shaped like bulbs, do not contain fleshy scale, solid, swollen stem with dry, scale-like leaves - Taro (Colocasia), - **Underground roots**- Carrots, Sweet potatoes (camote) and cassava # Animal Reproduction: Sexual Reproduction - **Earthworm** - Hermaphroditic - both male and female organs are found in the same worm - Clitellum- contains egg - During copulation, one worm passes its sperms into the seminal vesicle of another, at the same time receives sperms into its own receptacle - **Frog** - The eggs are fertilized in the water - **Chicken** - The rooster (male) places the opening of his reproductive organ against the opening of the hen's (female) - The hen drops the fertilized egg (surrounded by yolk) out of her body and incubates it ## Asexual Reproduction in other organisms - **Budding** - The parent organism produces offspring by growing a replica in the form of an outgrowth called bud - e.g. Hydra, Sponges, Yeast - **Fragmentation** - Separated pieces of the parent organism can develop into an individual - e.g. Sea star, Flatworms - **Binary Fission** - in bacteria # Human Systems 1. **Digestive System** - Physical digestion: mouth and stomach - Peristalsis- Wave-like muscle contractions that move food - Chemical digestion: breakdown of large food molecules by enzymes - Mouth - Pharynx - Throat - Esophagus - Stomach - Peristalsis occurs - Chyme (mixed food and gastric juices) - Small intestine - final place of digestion - Large intestine - Colon, water absorption, production of Vit. K, ends in rectum - Anus - Passageway in defecation - Accessory Organs: - Salivary gland - Liver- largest internal organ in the body, creates bile (emulsification of fats) - Gall bladder- stores the bile - Pancreas- secrete pancreatic amylase for final digestion of starch 2. **Circulatory System** - Transport blood from the heart to the lungs to oxygenate blood then to other parts of the body - Vein- blood back to heart - Artery- blood away to heart - Heart- pumps blood - Blood- contains of blood cells (RBC, WBC, Platelets), plasma - RBC (red corpuscles) is red because of hemoglobin - Fibrinogen- protein found in the plasma is responsible for blood clotting - Vitamin K- vitamin needed for blood clotting - Calcium- mineral needed for blood clotting - Vitamin B12- vitamin needed for RBC production 3. **Respiratory System** - Supplies body with oxygen, and release CO2 as waste - Inspiration- Inhale, takes oxygen in - Expiration- Exhale, releases CO2 out - Nose- warms and moisten air, traps dirt - Pharynx(throat)- passageway for both air and food - Epiglottis- prevents the entrance of food to trachea - Larynx- voice box - vocal cords are found inside the larynx (voice box) - Adam's apple in males - Trachea- (Windpipe) cartilaginous, traps and sweeps out dirt through cilia - Lungs- the main organ of respiratory system - Diaphragm-dome-shaped muscle beneath the lungs - Inhale-contracts - Exhale-relaxes 4. **Endocrine System** - Regulates body temperature, metabolism, development, homeostasis through hormones - Regulates other organ - Example: Pancreas releases insulin 5. **Reproductive System** - Male: Penis, Testes, Vas deferens, Epididymis, Scrotum, Prostate glands, Seminal vesicles, Bulbourethral gland - Female: Ovaries, Oviduct, Uterus, Cervix, Vagina, Labia - Fertilization- union of sex cells (gametes)- union of sperm and egg (ovum) - In vitro fertilization- Sperm and ovum meet inside the test tube - In vivo fertilization- Sperm and ovum meet inside the body 6. **Nervous System** - Regulates behavior, maintains homeostasis, controls sensory and motor functions - Memory and emotions - Spinal cord, brain - Neurons- the basic unit of nervous system - A. Central nervous system - Cerebrum: voluntary activities, largest, intelligences, learning, judgement - Cerebellum: involuntary, balance, coordination - Brain stem: connects brain and spinal cord, involuntary, life sustaining activities: breathing, heart rate, blood pressure, swallowing - Midbrain - Pons - Medulla oblongata - B. Peripheral nervous system - It consists of the nerves 7. **Skeletal System** - Protects and supports body parts - Framework - Blood cell production on bone marrows - Calcium and phosphorous storage - Bones (206 bones in adult) 8. **Muscular System** - Moves limbs and trunk - Moves substances through the body - Three types of Muscular Tissue - Smooth muscle- involuntary, non- striated - Cardiac muscle- involuntary, striated - Skeletal muscle- voluntary, striated 9. **Excretory System** - Removes metabolic waste from the body - Kidney- main excretory organ; produces urine. - Lungs- releases water vapor and carbon dioxide - Liver- produces urea - Skin- produces sweat 10. **Integumentary System** - Body covering - Protects from loss of internal fluids and from UV rays - Body temperature regulation - Nail, skin, hair - *Skin is the largest organ in the human body # Death: Postmortem changes 1. **Livor Mortis** - Known as hypostasis - The blood settles because of gravity - Skin becomes pinkish, bluish, blotchy 2. **Rigor Mortis** - Chemical changes causes muscle mass to become rigid - After Rigor mortis, chemical breakdown and muscles become flaccid 3. **Algor Mortis** - Body cooling from normal internal temperature to the temperature of the environment - **Decomposition- is a process of autolysis and putrefaction** - **Autolysis**, or self-digestion, refers to the destruction of a cell through the action of its enzymes - **Putrefaction-** Breakdown of tissues and liquefaction of most organ # Genetics ## Phenotype - Observable traits of an organism (Green, Tall, Short, Straight, Kinky) ## Genotype - Genetic constitution of an organism with reference to a specific character (Gg, gg, HH, hh) ## Homozygous - Gene combination having identical alleles for a single trait (HH, TT, tt) ## Heterozygous - Gene combination having two different alleles (Hh, Tt) ## Mendel's Law of Dominance - **Dominant gene** (Working genes) - It prevents the expression of the other gene (recessive gene) - **Recessive gene** (Non-working genes) - The expression is masked in the presence of a dominant gene - Will only have phenotypic expression if present as a homozygous genotype - **Example:** - S- Straight (Dominant) - s- Kinky (Recessive) - *SS- Straight - *Ss- Straight - *ss- Kinky # General Science: Earth Science ## General characteristics - All revolve around the sun in the same direction - Revolves eastward: from west to east (counterclockwise) - They rotate (spin on the axis) in the same direction (except Venus and Uranus) - Rotates eastward: from west to east (counterclockwise) ## Solar System: Planets - **A. Solar System: Inner Planets/ Terrestrial Planets** - 1. **Mercury** - 1 revolution: 88 earth days - Very little atmosphere because of low gravity - 315° C- day - Negative 149° C- night - 2. **Venus** - The brightest planet in our solar system - Evening star (March and April) - Morning star (September and October) - 243 earth days= revolution - Up to 480° C - Twin planet of Earth - Hottest planet - 3. **Earth** - Earth's closest neighboring planet - Blue planet - 365 days - Tilted axis 23.5° - located in the habitable zone - The only planet with life - Its rapid rotation on its axis (equatorial bulge). This makes the shape of the earth an oblate spheroid - 4. **Mars** - Red planet - 2 Earth years= 1 revolution - Two small moons: Phobos and Deimos - **Asteroid belt** - Located between Mars and Jupiter - Failed to become a planet - Grained sized up to hundreds of kilometers in diameter - Ceres- largest asteroid - Hermes- closest asteroid to the Earth - **B. Solar System: Jovian Planets/ Gas Planets / Outer Planets** - 5. **Jupiter** - Largest planet - Ringed planet - 67 moons - 4 Galilean moons: lo, Europa, Ganymede, Callisto - 6. **Saturn** - The ringed planet (made of ice, rocks, dusts) - 4 major rings and hundreds of ringlets - Has 62 moons - 7. **Uranus** - Has at least 27 moons - 13 known rings - 8. **Neptune** - Has at least 8 moons - Ringed planet - Fourth largest planet - Colored blue due to methane - *Pluto (Dwarf planet) - 1930-2006 - Found in the Kuiper belt (Oort Cloud) - 5 moons: Charon, Nix, Hydra, Kerberos, Styx - Highly elliptical orbit ## Solar System: Earth's Moon - **The Moon** - 1/6 of the Earth's gravity - 1¼ of the Earth's size - Rotation: 27 1/3 days. - Revolution: 27 1/3 days - The rotational rate matches the rate of revolution thus, the same side of the moon is always facing the Earth- Tidal lock - **Phases of the Moon** - repeats every 29.5 days. - Has 8 phases - 1. New moon- not seen in the night sky - 2. Waxing crescent - 3. First quarter - 4. Waxing gibbous - 5. Full moon - 6. Waning gibbous - 7. Last quarter - 8. Waning crescent - **Lunar Eclipse** - Earth's shadow fall on the Moon - S-E-M - **Solar Eclipse** - Moon's shadow fall on the Earth - S-M-E - **Spring tide** - Highest tide and lowest tide. - **Neap tides** - Have lower high tides and higher low tides. - **Perigee-** moon closest to the Earth - **Apogee-** moon farthest from the Earth - **Lunar missions** - Laika- first animal sent in space - Apollo 11, first successful manned mission to the moon - Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin- first men on moon (July 16, 1969, 8:18 PM)- Apollo 11 mission ## Solar System: The Sun - **The Sun** - Yellow star (Average Star) - Nuclear fusion- H + H = He + energy - **Photosphere**: visible surface of the sun, what we see, the diameter of the sun is taken - **Chromosphere**: color sphere, thin layer of red light during eclipse - **Corona**: outermost region, a crown of light, during a total eclipse, it becomes visible to earth - **Sunspots**: created by strong magnetic fields, cooler and darker portion on the Sun's surface - **Perihelion-** Sun is closest to the Earth - **Aphelion-** Sun is farthest from the Earth ## Other objects in the Universe - **Asteroid--> Meteoroid--> Meteor--> Meteorite** - **Meteoroid**- small debris chipped off from an asteroid - **Meteor**- when it enters the atmosphere - **Meteorite**- when it hits the land - **Comets** - Means long-haired - Small body of rock, iron, ice, methane, ammonia, carbon dioxide that orbit the sun elliptically - Nucleus called coma - The tail points away from the sun in a slightly curve manner due to solar winds - Halley's comet appears every 76 years. - **Star** - A ball of hydrogen and helium - Blue- Hottest star color - Blue-white - White - Yellow-white - Yellow - Red-orange - Red-coolest star color # Philippine Satellite - **Diwata 1 (PHL-Microsat-1)** - First Philippine microsatellite built and designed by Filipinos - Launched date: March 23, 2016 - Mission type: Earth's observation (non-military) - **Maya-1** (cubesat) - First Philippine nanosatellite built and designed by Filipinos - Launched date: June 29, 2018 - **Diwata 2 (Diwata-2B)** - Second Philippine microsatellite built and designed by Filipinos - Third Philippine satellite - Launched date: October 29, 2018 - Mission type: Earth's observation (non-military) # The Earth's History - **Geologic Time Scale** - **Eon - Era - Period - Epoch** - **Mesozoic Era- Middle/ Medieval life** - 1. **Triassic Period** - 248-213 mya - Appearance of first - 2. **Jurassic Period** - 213-145 mya - Jura mountains (between France and Switzerland) where rocks of this age were first studies - Age of Dinosaur # The Earth - The earth is divided into the following spheres: lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere ## A. Lithosphere: The Earth's layer 1. **Crust-** Earth's surface, outermost layer of the Earth - Oceanic crust - Continental crust 2. **Mantle-** rocky, made up of Si, O, Fe, Mg, Ca, denser than crust - Asthenosphere - partially molten rocks - Upper boundary: Moho or Mohorovicic discontinuity (Andrija Mohorovicic) - *Lithosphere = crust + uppermost mantle 3. **Core-** innermost, central part of the Earth - The liquid outer core is primarily made up of iron and nickel - The inner core is primarily made up of iron and is solid ## Changes in the lithosphere - **Continental drift theory (Alfred Wegener)** - Pangaea- super continent - Evidence by jigsaw-like shapes of South America and Africa - **Earthquake-** any movement of the ground due to volcanic eruption or tectonic plate movement - Foreshock - Mainshock - Aftershock - Focus- the point of origin where the movement of fault happens - Epicenter- the place above the focus - Magnitude: measurement of energy released, Richter Scale (by Charles Richter) - Intensity: the damage produced and the reaction of people, Mercalli Intensity Scale ## Minerals and Rocks - Mineral- defined as a naturally occurring, inorganic crystalline solid element or compound composed of an ordered arrangement of atoms with a specific chemical composition ### Physical Properties of Minerals - **Hardness-** it means resistance to scratch - **Moh's Scale of Hardness** - 1. Talc - 2. Gypsum - 3. Calcite - 4. Fluorite - 5. Apatite - 6. Orthoclase - 7. Quartz - 8. Topaz - 9. Corundum - 10. Diamond - **Ore- mineral deposit** - 1. Pitchblende- Ore of Uranium - 2. Magnetite- Ore of Iron - 3. Galena- One of Lead - 4. Chromite- Ore of Chrome - **Rock** is a naturally formed solid made up of one or more kinds of minerals. ### Rocks can be classified based on their origin into igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic - 1. **Igneous rock** is formed by the process of crystallization. It is formed from hardened magma or lava. - 2. **Sedimentary rock** - Formed by the process of lithification - Involves compaction of sediments that settle at the bottom due to the pressure exerted by the layers of sediment above - Involves cementation that involves the action of chemicals that bind these sediments together - **Coal** - Peat- decayed vegetation - Lignite- soft brown coal (lowest rank of coal) - Bituminous- black coal - Anthracite- dark, black coal, having highest-heat value among the four - 3. **Metamorphic rock** - Formed from previously existing rock such as igneous and sedimentary rocks - Subjected to heat and pressure, metamorphism - Example: Marble # Weathering and Erosion - Weathering- breaking of rocks, soil and their minerals through direct contact with the Earth's atmosphere, waters, or living things - Erosion-removal of solids (sediment, soil, rock, and other particles) is the natural environment, usually occurs due to transport by wind and water. ## B. Hydrosphere - **Water facts** - Three-quarters (75%) of the Earth's surface is submerged in water - The abundance of water is the main reason the Earth is habitable - **Hydrologic/ Water cycle** - i. Evaporation- when liquid turns to gas from bodies of water - ii. Condensation- gas returns to liquid in the form of clouds - iii. *Clouds are classified based on their shape and altitude - *Cumulonimbus- clouds that bring thunderstorms - iv. Precipitation- when heavy clouds pour liquid water or solid ice - v. Run-off- when the ground is saturated with water and water flows back to bodies of water - **Oceans (PAISA)** - 1. Pacific Ocean - 2. Atlantic Ocean - 3. Indian Ocean - 4. Southern Ocean (Antarctic) - 5. Arctic Ocean ## C. Atmosphere - **Meteorology** - Deals with the study of the atmosphere and the elements that produce weather and climate. ### Layers of the Atmosphere 1. **Troposphere** is the lowermost layer of the atmosphere that extends from ground level up to an altitude of about 16 km 2. **Stratosphere is the layer of the atmosphere above the troposphere. It extends from the topmost boundary of the troposphere up to an altitude of 50 km** - Ozone (O3)- protects us against UV rays - Destroyed by CFC's (Chlorofluorocarbons) - CFC's are replaced by alternative chemicals called HFC's (Hydrofluorocarbons) 3. **Mesosphere** is the layer of the atmosphere that is above the stratosphere. Meteors burnt up here, coldest layer 4. **Thermosphere** is the layer of the atmosphere that has temperature that can be as high as 2000°C. - Auroras are observed here (australis-southern, borealis-northern) 5. **Exosphere-** outermost layer of the atmosphere that extends beyond the topmost boundary of the thermosphere and gradually spreads out into the outer space - ***Magnetosphere** - The Earth's Magnetic Field, protects the Earth from dangerous charged particles (solar flares and solar winds) - **Wind and Climate System** - Typhoon- Pacific Ocean - Cyclone- Indian Ocean - Hurricane- Atlantic Ocean - **Monsoons and Wind Systems** - Amihan- Northeast Monsoon, September to June (cold and dry) - Habagat- Southwest Monsoon, July to August (warm and humid) - Easterlies- Hanging Silangan, from Pacific Ocean - **PAG-ASA-** Philippine Atmospheric Geophysical, and Astronomical Services Administration ## Storm warning signal | Warning Signal | Description | |---|---| | Signal No. 1 | winds of 30 to 60 kph in the next 24 hours | | Signal No. 2 | winds of 61 to 120 kph in the next 24 hours | | Signal No. 3 | winds of 121 to 170 kph in the next 18 hours | | Signal No. 4 | winds of 171 to 220 kph in the next 12 hours | | Signal No. 5 | winds of more than 220 kph in the next 12 hours | ## Storm Classification | Storm Classification | Description | |---|---| | Tropical Depression | winds of up to 61 kph| | Tropical Storm | winds of up to 62 to 88 kph | | Severe Tropical Storm | winds of up to 89 to 117 kph | | Typhoon | winds of up to 118 to 220 kph | | Super Typhoon | winds exceeding 220 kph | ## Atmosphere: Climate Change 1. **Greenhouse** - Thermal blanket - Accumulation of CO2 and other gases which causes the trapping of radiation from the sun- increase temperature 2. **Global warming** - Caused by an increase of CO2 in the atmosphere - Resulted to rapid increase in temperature ## Human Effects on the Environment 1. **Land pollution** - Causes land to be unproductive 2. **Air pollution** - Example: Acid Rain- caused by NOx and SOx 3. **Water pollution** - i. **Point Source Pollution-** through pipelines from large factories and water waste