Honors Biology Midterm Review PDF

​ ​ ​ ​ Honors Biology Midterm Review Lab Safety -know the general rules Scientific Method and Experimental Deisgn 1.​ Ask a question 2.​ Do background research 3.​ Make a hypothesis 4.​ Conduct experiments 5.​ Analysis 6.​ Conclusion ​ importance/st...

​ ​ ​ ​ Honors Biology Midterm Review Lab Safety -know the general rules Scientific Method and Experimental Deisgn 1.​ Ask a question 2.​ Do background research 3.​ Make a hypothesis 4.​ Conduct experiments 5.​ Analysis 6.​ Conclusion ​ importance/steps ○​ The outline of an experiment ​ Hypothesis ○​ Prediction before the experiment ​ Independent variable vs Dependent Variable ○​ The Independent variable is what the scientist changes (x-axis) ○​ the dependent variable is what responds to the independent variable (y-axis) ​ Control vs Experimental ○​ Control group is the one that does not receive the treatment (used as a comparison) ○​ Experimental group receives the treatment ​ How to improve experiments ○​ Increase sample size ○​ Strategy of measuring/keeping track ○​ Control and Experimental group present ○​ Peer review ○​ Repeat experiment ​ Basic Measurement ○​ Ruler measurement ​ Qualitative- descriptive, not measurable ​ Quantitative-numerical,measurable ​ Line graph-shows a relationship between an independent and dependent variable ○​ independent variable(x-axis) ○​ dependent variable(y-axis) ​ A direct relationship is when one variable increases, so does the other. ​ An indirect relationship is when one variable increases, the other decreases. ​ A cyclic relationship repeats itself over time. Life Functions -All living things ​ Made up of one or more cells ○​ The basic unit of life ​ Undergo metabolic processes (Metabolism) ○​ All chemical reactions that occur in an organism to make and use energy.  ​ Maintain homeostasis ​ Contain genetic material ​ Perform the eight main life functions ​ Characteristics of Life ○​ Regulation ​ Control and coordination of life processes/allows the body to maintain homeostasis ○​ Reproduction ​ Production of new life ○​ Respiration ​ Production of ATP by breaking down food ○​ Growth & Repair ​ Increase in size/repair damage ○​ Excretion ​ Remove waste products ○​ Nutrition ​ Using food to provide energy and nutrients ○​ Transport ​ Organisms distribute/circulate and absorb materials through the cells ○​ Synthesis ​ To build from simple to complex Viruses are not living- they don’t perform all the life functions Basic Chemistry ​ Matter-anything that has mass and occupies space/made of atoms 1.​ Atom-the smallest part of an element(proton) 2.​ Element- substance that cannot be broken down into a simpler substance with different properties(carbon) 3.​ Compound-substance containing 2 or more different elements chemically bonded together 4.​ Molecule- 2 or more NON-METAL elements chemically bonded together 5.​ Mixture- 2 or more substances not chemically combined together ​ subatomic particles ○​ protons= positive charge, atomic number(inside the atom) ○​ neutrons= neutral charge, atomic mass-atomic number (inside the atom) ○​ electrons= negative charge, atomic number(ring around the atom) ​ Properties of water ○​ Cohesion- water is attracted to other water molecules ○​ Adhesion- water attracted to other molecules ​ Types of bonds ○​ Ionic- transfer of electrons from one ion to another ○​ Covalent(strongest)- Atom shares one or more pairs of electrons with another atom and forms a bond. ​ Non-polar-electrons shared equally ​ Polar-electrons shared unequally  ○​ Hydrogen(weakest)-electrostatic attraction between two atoms that already participate in other chemical bonds ​ Ions vs Isotopes ○​ Ions-atom that has gained or lost electrons, resulting in a net positive(electrons were lost) or negative charge (electrons gained) ○​ Isotopes-atom that has a different # of neutrons changing atomic mass ​ Compound vs Molecules vs Mixture ○​ Compound-Made up of two or more DIFFERENT elements ○​ Molecule-A group of elements bonded together (can be the same or different) ○​ Mixture-two or more substances not chemically combined ​ Organic vs. Inorganic ○​ Organic-carbon and hydrogen ○​ Inorganic- neither or only one ​ Acids vs Bases ○​ Acids-hydrogen-containing substance that is capable of donating a proton (hydrogen ion) to another substance (7) ○​ 7 is neutral Macromolecules ​ Protein-CHON/amino acids ○​ Enzymes - Help speed up chemical reactions(shape determines function) ○​ Antibodies - Protect body from diseases ○​ Transport molecules across cell membranes ○​ Build and repair structures ​ Dipeptide-two amino acids bonded together ​ polypeptide-Polymers of protein/where the carboxyl group of one amino acid bonds with the amino group of another. ○​ Primary-sequence of amino acids in polypeptide chain ○​ Secondary-Folded structures due to hydrogen bonds forming between carboxyl and amino groups ○​ Tertiary-3D shape created due to non-covalent interactions between R-groups (ex. hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds) ○​ Quaternary Structure-Multiple polypeptide chains together to form a final 3D shape (held together by non-covalent interactions)  ○​ Amino acid functional groups ​ Amino group- Forms peptide bonds with the carboxyl group of another amino acid ​ Carboxyl group-Forms peptide bonds with the amino group of another amino acid ​ R-side chain- unique to each of 20 amino acids (always opposite of hydrogen) ​ Lipids-CHO/Fatty Acids+Glycerol ○​ Long term energy ​ Energy stored in chemical bonds ○​ Hormones: Important chemical messengers ○​ Insulation: Keeps you warm ○​ Makes up the cell membrane ○​ Help to absorb certain fat-soluble vitamins ​ Carbohydrates-CHO/simple sugars or monosaccharides(-ose) ○​ Disaccharides- two monosaccharides linked together ​ Starch - energy storage for plants ​ Cellulose - makes up plant cell walls ​ Glycogen - energy storage in animals in liver and skeletal muscle ​ Chitin - makes up the exoskeleton in arthropods ○​ Short term energy ​ Nucleic Acids-CHONP/nucleotides ○​ Storage and expression of genetic information ​ DNA-genetic info ​ RNA ​ Messenger RNA(mRNA)-carries dna message to ribosomes ​ Transfer RNA(tRNA)-bring amino acids to ribosome to translate mRNA into proteins ​ Ribosomal DNA(rRNA)-enzyme to form peptide bonds  ​ Energy is stored within the chemical bonds of molecules Enzymes ​ Importance of shape and function of Enzymes ○​ Enzymes - Help speed up chemical reactions ​ Enzymes lower a reaction’s activation energy (doesn’t need as much) ​ Activation energy – energy needed to get the reaction started ○​ Have specific shape ​ Enzymes can be re-used but only with similar/same substrates depending on their specificity ​ Active site vs. Substrate ○​ Active site- specifically shaped part of an enzyme where the substrate binds ○​ Substrate- substance that the enzyme works on ○​ catalyst-speeds up the reaction ○​ Product-end result A-Catalyst/active site B/C-substrates D=product ​ Environmental effects on enzymes ○​ Temperature or pH changes the enzyme’s shape ​ The enzyme denatures so it does not function properly ​ Dehydration synthesis vs. Hydrolysis  ○​ dehydration synthesis-to build molecules water is removed ○​ Hydrolysis-to break down molecules water is added ​ Cells ​ Cell Theory- all living things consist of cells each of which has come from a previously existing cell ​ Major Organelles ○​ Cell Membrane- ​ Regulates what comes in and out of the cell (selectively permeable) - bring in nutrients, remove wastes! ​ Performs gas exchange ​ Recognizes chemical signals from other cells with receptors ​ Protects the cell from the outside environment and provides structural support ○​ Cytoplasm- ​ Aids in intracellular transport around the cell ​ Holds organelles in place and provides shape ​ Space for chemical reactions to occur ○​ Nucleus- ​ Coordinates cell activity ​ Contains DNA ○​ Ribosomes- ​ Site of protein synthesis ○​ Mitochondria- ​ Site of cellular respiration to produce ATP ○​ Vacuole ​ Storage of water,nutrients,etc. ○​ Endoplasmic Reticulum ​ Transport proteins with ribosomes (Rough ER) ​ Transport lipids and carbohydrates without ribosomes(Smooth ER) ○​ Golgi Apparatus ​ Finishes, sorts, labels and ships proteins, carbs and lipids using packages called vesicles ○​ Lysosome (animals cells only) ​ Break down harmful substances ​ Recycle old cell parts ○​ Cell Wall (plant cells only)  ​ Rigidity and protection for cell ○​ Chloroplasts(plant cells only) ​ Site of photosynthesis ​ Plant vs. animal Cells ​ Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes ○​ Pro- no nucleus ○​ Eu-has nucleus ​ Interactions between organelles! ​ Nucleus and ribosomes - both help produce proteins. Nucleus provides to blueprint to make proteins, ribosomes are where the proteins are built ​ Mitochondria and any organelle - the mitochondria provides energy (ATP) for the organelle to function ​ Cell membrane and mitochondria - Cell membrane will bring in nutrients for the mitochondria to use in respiration ​ Ribosomes and lysosome - Ribosomes will build proteins to be used as enzymes in lysosomes Levels of organization ​ Multicellular-cell-tissue-organ-organ system-organism ​ Singlecellular- organelles-organism/cell Transport ​ Cell membrane properties and structure ○​ Made of phospholipids ​ Head-hydrophilic,tail-hydrophobic ○​ selectively permeable based on size ​ Diffusion/Passive Transport vs. Active Transport ○​ Diffusion uses passive transport(high to low) ○​ passive transport- movement of molecules from high to low concentration without using ATP ○​ Active transport-low to high concentration using ATP ​ Osmosis (Hypotonic, Isotonic, Hypertonic) ○​ Exocytosis-release of molecules from cell using vesicles  ○​ Phagocytosis-engulfing of large particles/forms vacuole ○​ Pinocytosis- taking in large dissolved particles/forms vesicles ○​ Receptor mediated endocytosis- take in specific molecules ○​ Osmosis-diffusion of water from high to low concentration ​ saltwater(hypertonic)-water moves out of cell from high to low ​ Animal cell - Shrinks ​ Plant cells - cell membrane and cytoplasm pull away from the cell wall ​ Normal water(isotonic)-water concentration equal on both sides ​ distilled water(hypotonic)-water moves in from high to low ​ Animal cell - Swells and bursts ​ Plant cells - Cell wall prevents the cell from bursting Feedback Mechanisms, Homeostasis, Dynamic Equilibrium ​ Dynamic Equilibrium-balanced and stable but always changing ​ Positive vs. Negative Feedback ○​ Positive Feedback - Amplifies the stimulus until goal is reached ○​ Negative Feedback- Counteracts or goes against the stimulus to return to normal ​ Importance and definition ○​ Maintaining homeostasis by responding to a stimulus/maintain internal stable condition ​ Secreting cell-cell that secretes (releases) a particular hormone with a certain shape  ​ Target cell-cell that has specifically shaped receptors for a particular hormone; can respond to it ​ Insulin – decreases blood glucose level - makes cells take in more glucose from blood, more glucose stored as glycogen in liver and muscles ​ Glucagon – increases blood glucose level - when glucose is depleted makes liver and muscles break down glycogen and release glucose into the blood ​ Diabetes-Disease when the body cannot regulate blood glucose/sugar ○​ Type 1 - Immune system attacks and destroys your insulin-producing cells in the pancreas leaving you with little or no insulin. ○​ Type 2 (more common) - Cells become resistant to the action of insulin, and your pancreas is unable to make enough insulin to overcome this resistance. Cellular Respiration ​ Basic overall process ○​ The mitochondria takes in oxygen and glucose to produce water, ATP, and CO2 ​ Location ○​ mitochondria ​ Inputs/Reactants and Outputs/Products ​ Aerobic vs. Anaerobic Respiration ○​ Aerobic-uses oxygen ○​ Anaerobic-doesn’t use oxygen and leads to build up of lactic acid leading to muscle pain  ​ Breathing rate increases during exercise to bring in more oxygen for respiration ​ Heart rate increases to pump more oxygen-rich blood and glucose for respiration ​ Yeast/alcohol fermentation- anerobic respiration Photosynthesis ​ autotrophs/producers- make their own food ​ heterotrophs/consumers-consume other organisms ​ ATP-high energy nucleotide with 3 chemical bonds ​ ADP-low energy nucleotide with 2 chemical bonds ​ NADPH - is a high energy electron and hydrogen proton carrier used in photosynthesis ​ NADP+ - ready to accept electrons and hydrogen protons ​ Basic overall process ○​ Process by which autotrophs convert light/solar energy into chemical energy of organic compounds ○​ Photosynthesis uses inorganic materials to create organic molecules! (glucose) ○​ This process stores energy in the chemical bonds of glucose! ○​ The majority of the mass of a plant comes from carbon dioxide due to the carbon structures built in plants ○​ CO2+water+sunlight=O2+Glucose ​ Location (Know different parts of the chloroplast) ○​ Membrane-bound organelle that contains enzymes and chlorophyll which absorbs red and blue light and reflects green light ○​ Takes place in the leaves because roots don't have chloroplasts ​ Light Dependent vs. Light Independent Reaction (Know inputs and outputs of each!) ○​ Light Dependent-during day with light ​ Thylakoid ​ inputs-ADP,NADP+,H20,Sunlight  ​ Outputs- oxygen,ATP,NADPH ​ Electron transport chain ​ Photosystem II splits H2O into 2 electrons, 2 hydrogen ions (thylakoid space),and oxygen(atmosphere) ​ Hydrogen ions pumped from low to high ​ Photosystem I turns NADP+ into NADPH ​ Atp synthase-hydrogen ion turns ADP into ATP ​ ○​ Light Independent-most active during day because stomata opens during day and ATP and NADPH are most abundant ​ Stroma ​ inputs-CO2,ATP,NADPH ​ outputs-Glucose,ADP,NADP+ ​ rubiso(enzyme)-fixates carbon ​ G3P makes glucose ​ Reduction ○​ NADP+ gets redacted to NADPH ​ Major Factors ○​ Temperature – Being out of optimal temperature, the activity of enzymes, that help photosynthesis occur, decrease! Which leads to less oxygen and glucose/sugar being produced ○​ Amount of light/light intensity – With less light intensity there will be a decrease in glucose/sugar and oxygen produced ○​ Color of light - Plants are able to absorb the most light for photosynthesis in red and blue light, yet absorb very little green light ○​ Water available – With less water, there will be a decrease in glucose/sugar and oxygen produced ○​ Amount of CO2 available – With less Carbon dioxide, there will be a decrease in glucose/sugar and oxygen produced