Biology and Biochemistry Year-End Review PDF

Biology and Biochemistry Year-End Review Biology Scientific Method: Forming hypotheses from observations and submitting those hypotheses to tests Parts of the Cell -Cell Membrane: made of lipids and proteins; it is a phospholipid bilayer -Ribosomes: made of RNA and Protein; R...

Biology and Biochemistry Year-End Review Biology Scientific Method: Forming hypotheses from observations and submitting those hypotheses to tests Parts of the Cell -Cell Membrane: made of lipids and proteins; it is a phospholipid bilayer -Ribosomes: made of RNA and Protein; Responsible for making proteins; located on rough endoplasmic reticulum and free in cytoplasm -Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum: makes lipids; does not contain ribosomes -Nucleus: Where DNA is housed and where messenger RNA is transcribed from DNA template. The messenger RNA then exits the nucleus via pores in the nuclear envelope and is translated into proteins by ribosomes. -Mitochondria (powerhouse of cell): Makes majority of ATP; Has its own DNA that allows for replication independent of nuclear DNA. -Golgi Apparatus: packages up cell products in vesicles -Peroxyzomes- detoxify Hydrogen Peroxide (H2O2) ATP Production -ATP is generated via process called cellular respiration, which consists of the following stages: 1. Glycolysis: occurs in the cytoplasm. Converts a glucose molecule into 2 Pyruvate molecules; 2 net ATP are created in the reaction; does not require oxygen so it is said to be anaerobic 2. Krebs Cycle aka Citric Acid Cycle: Creates 2 ATP; Occurs in mitochondria 3. Oxidative Phosphorylation creates 34 ATP. Process of Oxidative Phosphorylation uses a set of proteins embedded in the inner mitochondrial membrane to carry out the process. This group of proteins is referred to as the electron transport chain. Cyanide is so deadly because it interferes with this process and the person cannot generate enough ATP to keep the cells running. - Both the Krebs Cycle and the Electron Transport Chain require Oxygen so they are said to be aerobic -Oxygen is said to be the final electron accepter in the electron transport chain. In other words, it receives the electrons from the electron transport chain and is needed to complete the reaction. Types of Particle Movement -Simple and Facilitated diffusion have substances moving along their concentration gradient from high to low concentration -Simple diffusion: Fat soluble substances are able to diffuse right across lipid bilayer of cell membrane -Facilitated diffusion: Water soluble substances require channel to facilitate their movement across fat soluble cell membrane; i.e. Na+ Channel  -Simple and Facilitated diffusion do not require ATP -Active Transport: Movement from low to high concentration; against concentration gradient; Requires ATP; i.e. Sodium/Potassium pump -Osmosis: Diffusion of water -Remember, water is attracted to charged particles like Na+. If you put cell into hypertonic/hyperosmotic/concentrated solution, water rushes out and the cell shrivels. If you put cell in hypotonic/hypoosmotic/dilute solution, water rushes in and cell swells. Genetic -Basic Process: DNA is transcribed into RNA with help of enzyme called RNA polymerase. RNA is then translated into proteins by ribosomes. -Base Pairs of DNA molecule: Guanine pairs with cytosine; adenine pairs with thymine - In RNA, uracil replaces thymine -Point mutation is a random change within DNA sequence -Homozygous=AA or aa; Heterozygous=Aa -Genotype=The genetic code of the person such as AA; Phenotype=the physical characteristic such as brown hair Mitosis vs Meiosis: -Mitosis: cell division that results in 2 identical daughter cells -Meiosis: cell division that results in 2 daughter cells that each have half of the genetic material of the parent cell. This only occurs in sex cells necessary for sexual reproduction Biochemistry Protons=positive charge; found in nucleus Neutrons=neutral charge; found in nucleus Electrons=negative charge; found in shells encircling the nucleus Periodic Table -Atomic number is number of protons -Mass Number is number of protons plus number of neutrons -Atomic Mass is the average of all the possible masses of atoms of that element -Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different number of neutrons -Outer electrons aka valence electrons are the most important in chemical reactions Types of Bonds -Covalent bonds: Electrons are shared; Form molecules -Ionic bonds: Electrons are transferred; Form ions Macronutrients -These are organic materials, and therefore, contain carbon. Protein -Amino acids are building blocks of protein. They form peptide bonds with each other to form proteins -Glycine is the simplest of the 20 amino acids, meaning it has the fewest carbons -Protein Structures: Primary=order of amino acid sequence; Secondary=Chain bends or coils and creates alpha helix or beta pleated sheet structure; Tertiary=Chain folds onto itself; Quaternary=2 or more chains interact to form larger functional proteins like enzymes -Enzymes are proteins that lower the activation energy, and therefore, speed up chemical reactions -Denaturation: When proteins start unfolding due to heat, acid, etc. The amino acid chains (primary structure) remain, but the complexity of the protein structure (secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structures) has been altered. Lipids -Triglycerides are made of a glycerol backbone and 3 fatty acid tails -Cholesterol is a lipid and forms the backbone of steroids Carbohydrates -3 monosaccharides=glucose, fructose and galactose -3 Disaccharides=sucrose (glucose+fructose), Maltose (glucose+glucose), Lactose (glucose + galactose) -Isomer-Molecule with the same number and types of atoms but the atoms are arranged differently (different shape); i.e. Fructose is an isomer of glucose. Acid/Base -Acids are proton/H+ donors(release H+ ions into solution); bases are proton/H+ acceptors(tie up H+ ions) -When an acid and base are combined, they form salt and water and are said to be neutralized (called neutralization reaction)