Bilingualism & Multilingualism Relevance to Stuttering PDF

Bilingualism & Multilingualism and its Relevance to Stuttering What is Bilingualism? Bloomfield (1935) the native-like control of two languages Macnamara (1967) having minimal competence in only one of the four language modalities (speaking, writing, listening, and reading) in a language o...

Bilingualism & Multilingualism and its Relevance to Stuttering What is Bilingualism? Bloomfield (1935) the native-like control of two languages Macnamara (1967) having minimal competence in only one of the four language modalities (speaking, writing, listening, and reading) in a language other than the speaker’s native tongue Grossjean (1989) the ability to communicate in more than one language, where skills may vary and change over time depending on factors such as language use, proficiency, setting, conversational partner, and topic  Mennen (2011) defines bilingualism in terms of exposure simultaneous bilingualism is the exposure and acquisition of two languages from birth sequential bilingualism is the exposure and acquisition of one language from birth and the second language after the age of three Paradis et al. (2011) define dual language learners as individuals who are learning two languages simultaneously from infancy or who are learning a second language after the first language  What happens during dual lang acquisition? A bilingual individual engages in a number of different cognitive processes, including: (a) similarities and differences between languages, such as phonetic inventory, syntactic structure, and linguistic complexity (b) lexical access (c) the ability to inhibit or suppress the language that is not in use (d) the ability to alternate between two languages, also referred to as code-switching (e) any potential cross-linguistic transfer or the influence that one language has on another language, such as lexical- semantic levels and phonological levels (Kohnert, 2007) Bilingual individuals… More or less proficient in each of their languages (Macnamara, 1967) Proficiency may change over time and use and across modalities (Kohnert, 2007) Language shift may occur creating weaker and stronger languages, irrespective of time of acquisition (Karniol, 1992, Starweather & Gottwald, 1990) Language A – home language Language B – home, academically, socially, professionally How does this affect bilingual individuals who stutter (BIWS)? Stuttering and Bilingualism Some studies found greater disfluencies in a language that is dominant or more proficient in BIWS (Carias & Ingram, 2006; Jayaram, 1983; Lee et al., 2014; Taliancich-Klinger et al., 2013) While other studies found greater disfluencies in the less dominant or weaker language (Ardila et al., 2011; Bernstein Ratner and Benitez, 1985; Jankelowitz and Bortz, 1996; Lim et al., 2008) Packman-Antanasio 3 Factor Model of Stuttering (2012) Neural Activation of processi certain sounds is ng delayed or deficits deactivated Bilingual effects on stuttering relating to the P&A Model Components of a Aspects of Spoken language STUTTERING Triggers Language (phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics) Internal & External Social, cultural & Modulati Stimuli familial pressures ng Factors Cognitive Managing 2 Resources languages Switching between  Awarenes >70 million s >3 million people stutter in people stutter the world (The in the U.S. Stuttering Foundation (The Stuttering and Frank Wolf, 2014) Foundation and Frank Wolf, 2014) 50% of the 22% of the world's population ages population Stutteri 5+ classified as ng speak more than bilingual (Van one language Borsel, 2011) Symptom Anticipati (U.S. Census Bureau, s of 2019) on anxiety Behaviors that overlap with stuttering MAZE TYPE DESCRIPTION EXAMPLE Lexical Revision Correction of overt word His (frog) dog also came choice, to dd or delete along. lexical information (La rana mayor) la rana bebe. Grammatical Revision Correction of overt He was wearing the jar grammatical errors. (in) on his head. La rana (brincaron) brinco. Phonological Revision Correction of Squeak went the phonological errors. (saxalone) saxophone. Filled Pause Non-linguistic (um) what is this? vocalizations that occur La rana trato de (ah) at the beginning of tornar la leche. utterances or between words Repetition Sound, part-word, And they were looking. Byrd, 2017 What does literature say? Documents higher number of normal disfluencies (i.e., ums, hesitations, revisions, repetitions), also known as mazes present in typically fluent bilingual children Mazes also include interjections, initial sound repetitions, and strings of speech that interrupt fluent speech production (Bedore et al., 2006; Byrd, Bedore, et al., 2015; Carias & Ingram, 2006; Fie  Carias and Ingram (2006) found that bilingual SE children, between the ages 4 and 10, produced a higher degree of disfluencies in their more dominant language (Spanish) a higher mean length of utterance (MLU) present in Spanish than in English, and interpreted that as an indication of higher language proficiency The participants were not formally diagnosed with stuttering Presented with disfluency rates of 37% to 72% (typical like disfluencies) Clinical application: Frequency %SS and total disfluencies exceeded monolingual guidelines for stuttering for all participants Bilingual speakers may be more likely to experience an increased level of linguistic uncertainty which could result in increased production of disfluent speech What to we expect to see? Byrd et al. Clinical application: Disfluency Type Monosyllabic word repetitions Majority of participants exhibited higher than 3% frequency Sound and syllable repetitions Produced by all participants Clinical application: Assessment Not any different than monolingual assessment Conversational Narrative Reading samples in both languages Gradually increasing linguistic complexity to determine at which level (e.g., word, phrase, etc.) disfluencies occur (Shenker, 2013) Bilingual individuals typically present with word retrieval deficits and normal disfluencies, which can manifest as fillers, hesitations, revisions, word phrase repetitions, as well as conversational pauses (Bedore et al., 2006; Byrd, Bedore, et al., 2015; Fiestas et al., 2005)  Ambrose & Yairi (1999): identify, describe, and provide examples of disfluencies considered to be stuttering-like and non-stuttering-like, which can be used during analysis of language samples Employ interpreters (Gutierrez-Clellen, 1999) Caveats Applying monolingual guidelines during assessment of bilingual individuals Identification of stuttering in a bilingual client by a monolingual clinician The ability of a clinician to make valid and reliable judgments of stuttering in a familiar versus an unfamiliar language  Attitudes and cultural influences of a language that can impact assessment. Positive or negative emotional ties exist in a language (Dale, 1977; Nwokah, 1988; Watson & Kayser, 1994) Dale’s descriptive study (1977): Participants reported that parental pressures and community expectations to maintain native language proficiency, as it was culturally important, negatively impacted their fluent speech production in the native language, which was no longer a dominant language Shenker (2011) Use non-standardized measures, such as ethnographic interviews which allow the parents to express their concerns and wishes for treatment. Include family members Retelling family stories Treatment Does not change from what you would do with monolingual IWS (individuals with stutter) Use assessment to guide your goals and practice Studies reporting a generalization of treatment from one language to another Study Participants Languages Approach Woods & Wright, Case study, Russin/English Diaphragmatic breathing 1998 adult Lim, 2015 19 AWS English/Mandarin Speech restructuring intensive 19-47 y.o. program Vong et al., 2016 4 CWS Mandarin/English Lidcombe Program 3-6 y.o. Mandarin/English/Malay Priyanka & Maruthy, 5 AWS Kannada/English (2) Prolonged speech therapy 2019 Kannada/Tamil (1) Malayalam/English (1) Hindi/English (1) Results: Overall reduction of stuttering frequency in all languages spoken, with individual variations Studies reporting a bilingual approach to treatment: Treatment provided in sequential order Study Participants Languages Approach Roberts & Shenker, 2007 Case study English/French Lidcombe Program Shenker, 2004 Case study English/French Lidcombe Program Treatment provided in both languages simultaneously Study Participants Languages Approach Bakhtiar & Packman, Case study Baluchi/Persian Lidcombe Program 2009 Results: Positive treatment outcomes observed in both languages Case Study 5 year old boy Child feels anxious when speaking Multilingual – Polish, Norwegian, in Polish English Gets frustrated and does not want Exposed first to Polish at home, to communicate then Norwegian & English once Speech characteristics in Polish: entered school Revisions Exhibits greater proficiency in Repetitions Norwegian and prefers speaking Some blocks Norwegian over Polish Minimally observed when speaking Mother wants son to speak only Polish at home Norwegian Father does not have a preference How do you proceed? What is your advice to the parents?