Language Programs and Policies in Multilingual Societies: Lesson 1 PDF

1 LESSON 1 BILINGUALISM AND MULTILINGUALISM Duration: 4 hours Introduction 'What is multilingualism?' this question is not a...

1 LESSON 1 BILINGUALISM AND MULTILINGUALISM Duration: 4 hours Introduction 'What is multilingualism?' this question is not as simple as it appears at first glance. Decades have been spent on intense discussions about what kind of person a multilingual is. Explanations and descriptions of various communities labeled as multilingual vary in their accounts—the basic understanding of multilingualism is often diverged for researchers depending on their differing backgrounds and ideologies. Multilingualism is the presence of several languages in one country or community, or city. Multilingualism uses three or more languages, and it is the ability to speak several languages. In this last sense, multilingualism is widely regarded as 'a natural state of humankind' (Flynn, 2016). Also, neuroscientists discuss multilingualism in the context of how the brain is organized among those who speak multiple languages. A significant figure of people are multilingual and use more than two languages in their everyday life. The languages they use have various statuses as majority/minority languages both in their community and globally. Some of the languages are mainly used in the private domain. In contrast, others are mainly used in public environments, such as work or school. The lesson focus on individual' bilingualism and multilingualism. The individual's acquisition of multilingual competence, some tentative explanations for additive multilingualism, and implications for multilingual education. Lesson Objectives Upon accomplishment of this lesson, you are expected to: 1. Provide an understanding of bilingualism and multilingualism. 2. Acquire a basic knowledge of aspects and theories of the bilingual and multilingual acquisition of language. 3. Challenge myths about multilingualism. LANGUAGE PROGRAMS AND POLICIES IN MULTILINGUAL SOCIETIES  2 Before You Proceed… Fill in the following KWL chart. What do you know about Bilingualism and Multilingualism? What do you still want to know about it? What have you learned about it, or what do you expect to learn? Lesson Proper ACTIVITY Write TRUE if the statement is truthful and FALSE if not. __________1. Using two or more languages places unnecessary emotional stress on children. __________2. Children who acquire additional language do not develop fluency in any of these languages. __________3. Multilingualism is a helpful social and personal resource. __________4. Speaking more than one language restricts with children’s intellectual development. __________5. Multilingual societies are usually poor and underdeveloped. __________6. It is significant educationally that children learn in their mother tongues in the early years of schooling. ANALYSIS How can you describe the society you live in? Is it the norm for people to be bilingual or multilingual? Are you aware of any words commonly used in your language that have been informally adopted from another language like the German-Italian example above? LANGUAGE PROGRAMS AND POLICIES IN MULTILINGUAL SOCIETIES  3 BILINGUALISM AND MULTILINGUALISM Bilingualism and multilingualism is an interdisciplinary and multifaceted field. As is manifest from the prefixes (bi- and multi-), bilingualism and multilingualism phenomena are dedicated to studying construction, processing, and comprehension of two (and more than two) languages, respectively. However, in everyday usage, bilingualism is used as a cover term to embody both bilingualism and multilingualism. Multilingualism is the practice of more than one language, either by an individual speaker or by a group of speakers. It is believed that multilingual speakers be more numerous than monolingual speakers in the world's inhabitants. More than half of all Europeans privilege to speak at least one language other than their mother tongue. Still, many read and write in one language. Always useful to traders, multilingualism is beneficial for people wanting to participate in globalization and cultural openness. Because of the easy access to information enabled by the internet, persons' experience in numerous languages is becoming increasingly possible. People who can speak several languages are also called polyglots. TYPES OF BILINGUALISM ACCORDING TO SOCIAL STATUS a. Additive bilingualism: the new language and culture develop together with the mother tongue. Both the original language/culture and the native one is perceived as positive and evolve in a complementary way. b. Subtractive bilingualism: the new language and culture are perceived as more "prestigious" and are acquired "at the expense" of the mother tongue, which is destined to a gradual, even if partial, loss. Unfortunately, it happens too often that children are no longer able to communicate with their grandparents in their country of origin, for they have stopped using that language. TYPES OF BILINGUALISM ACCORDING TO FLUENCY AND COMPETENCE a. Balanced bilingualism is where two languages are spoken with the same level of fluency and competence; for example, if a bilingual person maintains relations and contacts with their original community while using the new community's language regularly. b. Dominant bilingualism is where one of the languages is spoken with greater fluency and competence than the other. According to the Dynamic Systems Theory (De Bot, Lowie &Verspoor, 2005), language acquisition is a complex process in which "forgetting" is as much part as "acquiring" and in which the phrase "use it (the language) or lose it" applies. LANGUAGE PROGRAMS AND POLICIES IN MULTILINGUAL SOCIETIES  4 TYPES OF BILINGUALISM ACCORDING TO AGE OF ACQUISITION OF THE LANGUAGES a. Simultaneous bilingualism: when parents speak two different languages, they may decide to use their respective mother tongues with their child. The child will, therefore, be simultaneously exposed to two languages from birth. b. Sequential bilingualism: when a family migrates to another country, the child will be immersed in that country's language. Consequently, they will develop competence in one or more languages besides their mother tongue. In some cases, if exposure is extreme (school, play with friends), the new language may become dominant compared to L1 (which may be used with family members only). Meanwhile, multilingualism is the ability to speak more than two different languages fluently. For us to fully understand MLE, it is also essential to discuss the structure of language. Every language is unique. For example, in English, an adjective comes before a noun (beautiful lady, red rose). In contrast, in Spanish, the adjective comes after (casa [house] Roja [red]). In German, you can put a noun after noun together to form compound words (der Geburtstag [birthday] + das Geschenk [present] = das Geburtstagsgeschenk [birthday present]); in Chinese, the pitch of your voice determines the meaning of your words. But all languages have structural underpinnings that make them logical for the people who speak and understand them. There are five main components of language. These are phonemes, morphemes, lexemes, syntax, and context. LEARNING THEORIES ON BILINGUALISM AND MULTILINGUALISM Second, language learning theories have drawn significant attention to many researchers in the field of linguistics. In this lesson, there are three influential theories related to bilingualism and multilingualism. 1. Iceberg Analogy-CUP Model: It supports the transfer of skills across languages and emphasizes that the common aspects of two languages not only do they transfer, but they are interdependent (ibid). Two pictures better describe the theory: the first one is illustrated by an ordinary language balloon inside the head connected with both the L1 and L2, and the second depicts two icebergs which are separate above the surface, the one includes the linguistic features of L1 and the second the linguistic features of L2, but they function through a conventional operating system below the surface, the Common Underlying Proficiency (Baker, 2011). In other words, the particular theory emphasizes that there is a possibility to acquire two or more languages and that educational attainment may be achieved through one, two, or more languages the same way. The academic performance may be negatively affected if there is not enough motivation from the school and family to develop both languages or if there is pressure to replace the first language with the second. LANGUAGE PROGRAMS AND POLICIES IN MULTILINGUAL SOCIETIES  5 2. The Thresholds Theory: As Baker (2011) states, Cummins (1976) and Toukomaa and Skutnabb-Kangas (1977) were the first that developed the Thresholds Theory that explains the relationship between cognition and bilingualism and refers to people who have a certain level of foundation and competence in the two languages. The picture below is provided to understand the analysis of this theory easily. Thresholds theory is explained by a picture of a house divided into three floors. Two thresholds are those that separate the floors. These thresholds are levels of competence, and each level has consequences for a child (Baker, 2011). The level below the first threshold represents those who are limited bilinguals meaning their proficiency in both languages is limited or inadequate for their age. The consequences for a child may only be negative since he/she cannot deal with either of the two languages. On the middle floor, some have developed an age-appropriate proficiency in one of the two languages. At the same time, competence in the other one remains limited. These children, who are partly bilinguals, may have some positive differences in cognition but not significant ones since they have not fully developed their English proficiency. At the top level, there are those called balanced bilinguals who have age-appropriate competence in both languages. It means that they have many chances to experience the positive effects of bilingualism. The advantages of bilingualism depend on factors, such as motivation, pressure from the environment of the child, and levels of stress (ibid). LANGUAGE PROGRAMS AND POLICIES IN MULTILINGUAL SOCIETIES  6 3. Basic Interpersonal Communicative Skills (BICS) and cognitive academic language proficiency (CALP): It refers to the way meaning is communicated either through contextual or cognitive cues. The figure below depicts this distinction. The framework is constituted of two continua; the two extremes of the horizontal continuum (context-embedded and context-reduced) refer to the level of contextual support needed to communicate meaning (Cummins, 1994). In the context-embedded case, the purpose is transferred by lots of interpersonal cues, such as gestures, facial expressions, feedback, and change in intonation during a speech. In the context- reduced situation, an adequate level of competence and knowledge of the language must communicate meaning. Moreover, the vertical continuum consists of cognitively demanding and cognitively undemanding tasks. The first one refers to activities where the cognitive involvement required to complete training is little since the linguistic tools that need to use have been automatized while in the second case, the tasks require higher cognitive involvement (ibid). Furthermore, another distinction made is among the quadrants I-IV; a person with little fluency belongs to quadrant I, which means that necessary interpersonal communication is context embedded. In contrast, advanced language competence belongs to quadrant IV (Baker, 2011). The quadrants II and III are middle phases of the development of an individual's linguistic competence. 4. The Natural Approach Theory: Stephen Krashen and Tracy Terrell introduced the Natural Approach theory in 1997 to develop a teaching approach that integrates the principles of the "naturalistic" character in SLA research. They aimed to identify the Natural Approach with the traditional approaches to language teaching, and by "traditional," they mean the "use of language in communicative situations without recourse to the native language" (Richards and Rodgers, 2001 p.178). Krashen and Terrell place the Natural Approach to LANGUAGE PROGRAMS AND POLICIES IN MULTILINGUAL SOCIETIES  7 the category of communicative approaches claiming that communication is the primary function of language and that acquisition occurs when learners understand the meaning in the target language. This approach was developed by Krashen's language acquisition theory, which consists of five principles/hypotheses. The Monitor hypothesis claims that the brain recalls learned knowledge, which functions as a monitor/editor that corrects or checks the linguistic output during L2 acquisition. The Natural Order hypothesis supports that grammatical rules are acquired in a specific order, meaning that some grammatical morphemes are acquired earlier than others. For instance, the morpheme -s in the third person of Simple Present is acquired later than the -s in the plural (ibid). The Input Hypothesis focuses on acquisition rather than learning. It supports that fluency emerges during the time after the learner has been exposed to an adequate amount of comprehensible input, such as more uncomplicated phrases or use of simplified speech (repetition, the slower pace of speech) to the learner of the L2 (Krashen, 1982). The Affective Filter hypothesis claims that the learner's psychological state can function as a filter, which either allows or blocks the input. Three variables positively related to SLA are; motivation, self-confidence, and low anxiety that can positively affect L2 acquisition (ibid). 5. The socio-cultural theory: Lev Vygotsky introduced a theory of cognitive development in 1934. Even though his early death left many parts of the theory incomplete, he has already set the ground for further research. The Sociocultural Learning Theory is constructed upon the knowledge that a learner's atmosphere plays a pivotal role in his/her learning development. According to Vygotsky, the learning process involves three key themes: culture, language, and the "zone of proximal development." Culture. Vygotsky suggested that cultures are formed through the use of tools and symbols and that this crucial distinction separates the human race from that of animals. Intelligence is attained when a learner can "internalize" the tools provided in the culture. When the tools of culture develop and emerge, the learners' ability to grow as individuals and increase their knowledge base is widened. Language. It is a direct result of the symbols and tools that emerge within a culture. A person can learn language through various social events, scenarios, and processes, which all result in the acquisition of language. This characteristic of the Sociocultural Learning Theory depends on the impression that students complete three speech progress stages. First, they must involve in the social environment, which is known as "social speech," and begins at the age of 2. Next, they will acquire "private speech," which occurs when learners voice their thoughts aloud and start at the age of 3. The last is "inner speech," which takes LANGUAGE PROGRAMS AND POLICIES IN MULTILINGUAL SOCIETIES  8 the system of notions that keep on inside our minds and directly influences our behavior or thoughts and begins at the age of 7. Zone of Proximal Development. The "gap" or distance exists between a learner's possible educational development, which is determined through problem-solving activities, and the development that takes place. It is assessed when learners are requested to engage in problem-solving tasks under the supervision of an instructor. Most Multilingual Countries in the World Country No. of official Languages No. of Languages Russia 24 129 India 23 427 Papua New Guinea 4 820 Indonesia 1 742 Australia 1 275 China 7 241 Philippines 2 170 THE PHILIPPINES The Philippines is an archipelago that comprises some 7000 islands. Approximately 170 mutually unintelligible languages are spoken throughout the country. The official languages are Filipino (formerly called Pilipino, based upon Tagalog, the metropolitan Manila region) and English. After more than a decade of investigating with diverse approaches to language education and as a result of a nationwide language policy survey undertaken during 1967 and 1968, MYTHS CONCERNING MULTILINGUALISM Multilingualism seems to be the norm in the world. As already mentioned, more people in the world are bi- or multilingual than monolingual. However, prejudices and misconceptions about multilingualism are still widespread. In this lesson, we are going to report some of the most commonly held misconceptions. 1. Learning two or more languages entails an excessive cognitive load. It may have adverse effects on general cognitive development. NO: From birth, our brain is perfectly able to "handle" two or more languages. Numerous research studies have demonstrated that bilingualism's benefits on a cognitive level are much more significant than the disadvantage. LANGUAGE PROGRAMS AND POLICIES IN MULTILINGUAL SOCIETIES  9 2. It may be better to delay one of the languages to become "stable" before introducing the other. NO: Parents may discover that introducing the second language late may be too difficult. 3. Bilingual children mix up the two languages and are confused. NO: Bilingual children switch from one language to the other, but the changes always follow precise rules. Children are not confused by the use of two languages. On the contrary, they develop the ability to select the appropriate words from the appropriate language based on the interaction context. 4. If the parents of a child speak two different languages, the child will naturally become bilingual. NO: If there is not enough exposure to the minority language (the one that is not the language of the environment), the child might not develop enough competence in this language. 5. Having to learn more languages is too difficult for students with dyslexia. NO: Multilingualism being the norm in the world, it is known that practically all children can learn more languages in a naturalistic context. Indeed, learning several languages in a school context with 3 to 4 lessons a week and homework on top may be too much for some children. However, there is no reason to exempt dyslexic students from starting to learning another language. ABSTRACTION Bilingualism According to Fluency and Learning Competence Bilingualism Theories in According to Bilingualism Age of and acquisition of Multilingualism the languages Bilingualism Bilingualism Myths and According to concerning Multilingualis Social Status multilingualism m 1. Explain the figure above. ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ LANGUAGE PROGRAMS AND POLICIES IN MULTILINGUAL SOCIETIES  10 2. How does Bilingualism and Multilingualism address equality in education and culture? _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ APPLICATION TRUE/FALSE. Read each statement below cautiously. Place a T on the space if the statement is TRUE. And write F on the line if you think the statement is FALSE. ______1. Speaking more than two languages gives unnecessary emotional stress on children. ______2. Children who acquire more than one language do not become fluent in any of these languages. ______3. Multilingualism is a helpful social and personal resource. ______4. Speaking two or more languages interferes with children's intellectual development. ______5. It is imperative educationally that children learn in their mother tongues in the early years of schooling. Insights KEEP IN MIND Bilingualism and multilingualism have both de facto existences and essential places in the psychological, political, and social debates that define social and ethnic groups, communities, and regions. Types of Bilingualism According to Social Status: Additive bilingualism and Subtractive bilingualism. Types of Bilingualism According to Fluency and Competence: Balanced bilingualism and Dominant bilingualism. Types of Bilingualism According to Age of acquisition of the languages: Simultaneous bilingualism and Sequential bilingualism. LANGUAGE PROGRAMS AND POLICIES IN MULTILINGUAL SOCIETIES  11 Post-test Multiple Choice. Circle the letter corresponds to your answer. 1. It refers to the use of two (or more) languages by an individual. a. Individual Bilingualism b. Societal Bilingualism c. Elective Bilingualism d. Natural Bilingualism 2. Christal speaks French and German fluently, so he is _____. a. Monolingual c. Trilingual b. Bilingual d. Multilingual 3. Elora speaks, reads, writes and understands English, Spanish, French, and Italian. She is _____. a. Monolingual c. Trilingual b. Bilingual d. Multilingual 4. The situation in which two languages are learned with no status differences attributed to either of them and the first language does not suffer any detriment due to the speaker's acquiring the second language, is referred to as ____ a. Additive bilingualism b. Balanced bilingualism c. Subtractive bilingualism d. Dominant bilingualism 5. What is the term used for situations where the second (majority) language becomes dominant, even replacing a child's first (minority) language, as with some immigrant families? a. Semilingual b. Sequential bilingualism c. Language loss d. Subtractive bilingualism References: Baker, C. (2000). A teachers' and parents' guide to bilingualism. Clevedon, Avon: Multilingual Matters. Baker, C. (2000). Foundations of bilingualism and bilingual education. Clevedon, Avon: Multilingual Matters. LANGUAGE PROGRAMS AND POLICIES IN MULTILINGUAL SOCIETIES  12 Baker, C. (2011). Foundations of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism (5th ed.). USA: McNaughton & Gunn Ltd. Bright, W. (ed.) (1992) International Encyclopedia of Languages. New York: Oxford University Press. Cenon, J. (1998). Beyond Bilingualism: Multilingualism and Multilingual Education Multilingual Matters. Cheshire, J. (ed.) (1991) English Around the World: Sociolinguistic Perspectives. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Cummins, J. (1994). Primary Language Instruction and the Education of Language Minority Students. In Leyba, C. (Ed.), Schooling and Language Minority Students (pp.3-46). Los Angeles LA: Evaluation, Dissemination, and Assessment Center. Krashen, S. D. (1982). Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition. California: Pergamon Press, Inc. Paulston, C. B. (1982). Swedish Debate and Research about Bilingualism. A Critical Review of the Swedish Research and Debate about Bilingualism and Bilingual Education in Sweden from an International Perspective. Retrieved from: http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED228843.pdf. Richards, J. K. & Rodgers, T. S. (2001). Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. LANGUAGE PROGRAMS AND POLICIES IN MULTILINGUAL SOCIETIES  13 LESSON 2 DIVERSITY AND EDUCATION IN A GLOBAL WORLD Duration: 3 hours Introduction Diversity is inherent among different communities around the globe. Still, it is generally ignored in many educational settings despite its evident presence. It is in a similar notion that theoretical paradigms were continuously changing in the fields of language learning and applied linguistics. For many years, the conventional field of Second Language Acquisition (SLA) considered languages' acquisition in all language skills (speaking, writing, reading, and listening) based on native-like ability levels. In turn, it has allowed a change in the philosophy of language learning, from acquisition, which considers languages as fixed and permanent, to growth, which supports the fluidity and fluctuation of languages. The controversial term second language may not indicate many individuals' experience of language growth, whose repertoires cover more than two languages, including heritage languages. In reality, languages within a person's repertoire will continuously alter, evolve further or less depending on their history, needs, and geographical location. This lesson discusses language diversity across the world and its connection to education and culture. Language education is central to politics, economics, history, and, most definitely, education in this period of globalization. Lesson Objectives Upon accomplishment of this lesson, you are expected to: 1. Familiarize with the terminologies being used in an article; 2. Portray the occurrences that took place in establishing the English curriculum in the Philippines; 3. Cite specific scenario/s that would make themselves relate with the experiences of the characters in a given selection; LANGUAGE PROGRAMS AND POLICIES IN MULTILINGUAL SOCIETIES  14 4. Identify the importance of having a barrier-free conversation in any language of their choice; and 5. Use a social media platform to apply what is being learned from the lesson. Before You Proceed… Rearrange the letters below to fit with its definition. 1. rsvetidiy - ______________________ /noun/ the value or state of having many different forms, types, ideas, etc. 2. gapdiram - ______________________ /noun/ a pattern or model for something that may be copied 3. irprertoee - ______________________ /noun/ all the things that a person is able to do 4. iolizabgltaon - ______________________ /noun/ the act or process marked by shared culture and point of view from different parts of the world 5. olnigunomal - ______________________ /adjective/ using or expressed in only one language 6. ilgbaluin - ______________________ /adjective/ able to express and understand two languages 7. eiigndusno - ______________________ /adjective/ produced, living, or existing naturally in a particular region or environment 8. lononpaegh - ______________________ /adjective; (often capitalized)/ consisting of or belonging to an English- speaking population where two or more languages are spoken 9. hraofncneop- ______________________ /adjective; (often capitalized)/ of, having, or belonging to a population using French as its first or sometimes second language 10. ageyogdp - ______________________ /noun/ the art, discipline, or profession of teaching Lesson Proper Over the previous decades, a rich body of literature has emerged as a strong reaction to the monolingual system, providing alternative approaches and strategies to language learning that promote the person's linguistic skills. It does not only include first or second language but any other language knowledge, even if partial. The following two instances demonstrate how languages can vary: Case Number 1: Martha was a native in the Basque Country, and at home, she learned Basque, her first language. She started learning Spanish at the age of 6, and developed high skills in both languages, becoming fully bilingual. She moved to France on an exchange program at the age of 21and gained French working skills after two years. She moved to Amazonia at the age of 23, LANGUAGE PROGRAMS AND POLICIES IN MULTILINGUAL SOCIETIES  15 though, and as most of her colleagues were Spanish and Brazilian, she did not use French as much as she did. However, her Basque was well preserved. She would use it in her family's online interactions, but her French skills decreased. Martha started studying Katukina, an indigenous language, since she was creating projects with indigenous peoples. After two years, she moved to Argentina, where she met an Argentinean and began learning a different variety of Spanish. By this stage, she had limited French and Katukina, although still able to have fundamental interactions. The best was her Basque expertise and the variation of Spanish spoken in Spain. Case Number 2: Raised in Syria, Mohamed studied Arabic, his first language, in his home country. He and his family immigrated to Ontario, a Canadian Anglophone province, at the age of 3. His parents would speak Arabic at home-considered his heritage language due to the new background – but he was introduced to English at daycare. His school life continued to be the primary language of instruction is English, and his parents agreed to enroll him in a cultural heritage program so that Mohamed could learn to learn Arabic. At the age of 13, he and his family moved to Quebec, a Francophone province in Canada. The language of instruction was French (or Quebecers, a variation of French). At that point, Mohamed's most robust language was English, even though Arabic was his first language. Provided that Quebec schools' language of instruction was French, his emphasis will be on studying that language. Martha and Mohammed's life travels allowed them to learn different languages and their variations, partly or at high levels, which may or may not continue to evolve in the future. Their history shows that the concept of language development – first, second, third, etc. – and concepts of origin, international and local languages are fluid rather than stagnant. They are highly dependent on the context, along with its political, social, and historical systems. Life is not unique in a globalized world where regional and transnational migration, along with the emerging technology and the internet, has dramatically changed the way people live, function, and grow languages. In consideration of the emerging difficulties of language development, the fields of language education and applied linguistics have developed accordingly, rejecting the conceptions of a native-speaking paradigm for language development. Also, a native speaker's notion was disputed because of the lack of language variation; that is, because of its underlying presumption that there is only one type of a native speaker. For instance, in English Language Teaching (ELT), Jenkins (2006) discusses the importance of including diverse varieties of English or World Englishes in linguistic pedagogy, with native speakers from different locations (e.g., India, Australia, Nigeria, and elsewhere) same with the non-native English speakers. LANGUAGE PROGRAMS AND POLICIES IN MULTILINGUAL SOCIETIES  16 Varieties in registers, rhetoric, sociolinguistic use, lexical, grammatical, and phonological subjects are essential for language learning. For example, while accents may be a factor in verbal communication, different accents are essential to linguistic diversity. They should not be considered to represent a barrier to communication. Studies investigating phonetic spelling show that non-native speech can have a high level of factual accuracy even when uttered with the first language (Galante and Thomson 2016), implying that native-like speech is unnecessary. Accordingly, the concept of possession of a language is not only a right for the native speaker but also any language user (Ortega 2014). Cultural diversity debates and ownerships have a great deal of importance in current language education programs. It is also why plurilingualism is well in line with super diverse cultures, as it accepts different languages and respects and encourages linguistic diversity within the same community. Although the general view of plurilingualism is not historically recent (Flores 2013), it gained momentum with its formal introduction in the French publication of the Council of Europe's Language Policy Division in the late 1990s (Coste et al. 1997), which was later published in the English variety of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR-Council of Europe 2001). One must consider that the French concept of compétenceplurilingue et pluriculturelle was translated as two distinct concepts in the English version of the CEFR (2001): plurilingual skills and pluricultural competence (Coste et al. 2009), which may have consequently oriented pedagogy and research to address language and culture with diverse individuality. ACTIVITY Form a group having three to five members and make one-minute video advocacy that intends to showcase the beauty of diversity in promoting equality and a more effective way of using the global language. The output will be graded using the criteria that follow: Creativity - 25% Clarity - 25% Content - 25% Collaboration - 25% Total - 100% ANALYSIS Unlike the cases being provided in this lesson about Martha and Mohamed, most of the students like you have not experienced their level of exposure in using various languages from different parts of the world. What then are the experiences closest to the ones the two of them have you encountered then? Cite a specific scenario about that happenstance and share how you cope/deal with it. LANGUAGE PROGRAMS AND POLICIES IN MULTILINGUAL SOCIETIES  17 ABSTRACTION Imagine you were the youth ambassador of the Philippines who would be joining a language summit which will be participated by different ASEAN representatives; how do you think you would come up with a good impression among the other delegates when it comes to conversing with them? Do you think they would love to visit our country after they get acquainted with you? Why or why not? APPLICATION Employing a social media platform of your choice, talk to a foreigner for not more than five (5) minutes and try to inscribe your conversation in a whole sheet of the legal- sized pad to see how well you can cope with the phase of your discussion them. Include in that note some factors that either hind/help you understand each other. Insights When you were still much younger than you are now, did you have an experience wherein you witnessed anybody being shied away from others because of the "standard language acceptability" they failed to possess? How did you react then? Do you think your action helped or worsened the situation that you and that person were engaging in? Should that occurrence be given a chance to repeat, would you do what you did back then? Why or why not? Write your answer in the space provided. ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ Post-test Multiple Choice. Circle the letter corresponds to your answer. 1. Based on this module, what terms inherent among different communities around the globe but are generally ignored in many educational settings despite its noticeable presence? a. Similarity c. diversity b. accent d. ignorance 2. Why is language acquisition not constant in one's life? a. Language within the repertoire of a person will continuously alter depending on their needs, history, and geographical location. b. It is because every day, one learns new things and encounter different experiences that make them acquire different language styles. c. Options a and b are both correct. d. Both options a and b are incorrect. LANGUAGE PROGRAMS AND POLICIES IN MULTILINGUAL SOCIETIES  18 3. Which is NOT considered as the idea of this lesson? a. The accuracy of language use does not depend on its users' accent, word choice, or pronunciation. b. When spoken by different speakers with various non-native tongues, English could still be useful in communicating with others. c. English-speaking people should not limit their capacity to expressing themselves based on the way English native-speakers' way. d. It is a must for people to speak English to understand each other. 4. Galante and Thomson (2016) found out that studies investigating phonetic spelling show that non-native speech can have a high level of factual accuracy even when spoken with the first language's accent. What does it mean? a. It implies that native-like speech is not necessary for communication. b. Sounds produced during the communication process is not so important. c. One's phonetic ability does not matter in terms of speaking. d. None of the given options could be considered acceptable. 5. Using the schema about the affixes of the word plurilingualism, which of the following is nearest to its literal translation? a. many languages state b. state of many languages c. language of many states d. none of the given options 6. Which of the given sentences below does not fit to explain the statement: "In reality, languages within the repertoire of a person will constantly alter, evolve more or less depending on one's needs, history and geographical location."? a. It means that when a person wants to be good at using any language, they should go and live within others who are using the target language. b. It means that a person's language growth depends on circumstances they get themselves involved in using the language they acquire. c. It means that when a person does not go from place to place, that would mean that their language would not evolve. d. It means that unless a person has to understand a specific language since its part of their task/desire to do so, language acquisition could not be possible. 7. Who states that "…the concept of possession of a language is not only a right for the native speaker but also any language user."? a. Flores 2013 c. Galante and Thomson 2016 b. Coste et al., 2009 d. Ortega 2014 LANGUAGE PROGRAMS AND POLICIES IN MULTILINGUAL SOCIETIES  19 8. Which of the following terms was considered something that may not indicate many individuals' experience of language growth, whose repertoires cover more than two languages, including heritage languages? a. Mother tongue c. third language b. second language d. acquired language 9. The following statements show reasons as to why Second Language Acquisition (SLA) should not consider the acquisition of languages in all language skills (speaking, writing, reading, and listening) based on native- like ability levels EXCEPT: a. One's ability to deal with language should not be determined based on how good they imitated its source. b. Individual language-users have a different background, so it is only normal to have distinctions in using the language under concern. c. Language has different facets, and for adequate communication to occur, they ought to be considered. d. Native-like users are experts with their language, so it is only fair to follow their communication way. 10. The phrase: "varieties of English or World Englishes in language pedagogy" pertains to: a. Different English languages from different origins b. English languages with different meanings c. Different nationalities speak the English language. d. The use of the English language in an improper way References: Ansah, M.A. (2016). Language Choice in Multilingual Communities: The Case of Larteh, Ghana. Legon Journal of the Humanities, 25, 37-57. Bob C. (2014). Language Planning and Policy. Accessed from www.slidehare.net on August 20, 2020 Haugen E. (1997) Language Standardization. In: Coupland N., Jaworski A. (eds) Sociolinguistics. Modern Linguistics Series. Palgrave, London. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-25582-5_27 de Galbert, Pierre Gaspard. (2019). Learning in Multilingual Contexts: Language Policies, Cross-Linguistic Transfer, and Reading Interventions. Doctoral dissertation, Harvard Graduate School of Education. LANGUAGE PROGRAMS AND POLICIES IN MULTILINGUAL SOCIETIES  20 LESSON 3 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LANGUAGE AND SOCIETY Duration: 4 hours Introduction The connection between language and society is firmly anchored. The relationship between the two is deeply rooted. Language performs various functions in the community, and culture prepares a similar way. The other one will be affected if one will not exist. Language is the key tool for communication, establishing peace and order in our society, showing power and authority, and achieving goals and objectives. However, it can also destruct society if it will use inappropriately. It must follow the conformity governing society to avoid conflict and see the border of an individual's distinction. Society, however, has control in our language by giving us preferences regarding what is suitable and not. Each of us has our insight or point of view. A group of individuals may accept our language, but it could be offensive or abuse for others. We should know how, when, and where to say it and for what purpose. Social changes produce changes in language, and language incorporates social values. It affects standards in ways that have not been accurately understood. Nevertheless, social values are only the same as linguistic values when society is constant. Once society starts changing, then language change also occurs. Lesson Objectives Upon accomplishment of this lesson, you are expected to: 1. Develop a critical understanding and analysis of the relationship between language and society. 2. Increase your understanding of terminology, concepts, and research paradigms which are essential in understanding sociolinguistic 3. Reconstruct differing language views and programs to be applied to the teaching and learning process. LANGUAGE PROGRAMS AND POLICIES IN MULTILINGUAL SOCIETIES  21 Before You Proceed… Fill in the following KWL chart. What do you know about language and society? What do you still want to know about it? What have you learned about it, or what do you expect to learn? Write True if you agree with the statement and False if not. __________1. The beliefs a particular group has about land are derived from culture. __________2. A person behaves toward people of another group because of the ways his cultural group has taught him to behave. __________3. The color of a child’s eyes is decided by its culture. __________4. Some groups in the world have no culture. __________5. How a person behaves towards a spouse's relations depends on his/her culture. __________6. Making an eye connection with the person you are speaking to is a matter of culture. __________7. Your culture determines where you should live. __________8. Children are born with their culture already in their brains. __________9. You cannot be a member of more than one culture at a time. __________10. A culture is maintained mainly through its language. Lesson Proper ACTIVITY Reflect on this: What do you think is the most widely used language in Southeast Asia? How do ASEAN countries regard English? At what stage/ age do you start learning English in school and at home? Share your thoughts below. ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ LANGUAGE PROGRAMS AND POLICIES IN MULTILINGUAL SOCIETIES  22 ANALYSIS Based on the illustration below, make a short essay on how language affects society and vice versa? Social Class Education Factors Affecting Language Use Gender Language and Relationship Society Between Language and Society Age Various Definitions of Sociolinguistics LANGUAGE AND SOCIETY People and social phenomenon equally play a vital role in language as language is a means of communication. Sociolinguistics as the area of language and society is intended to show how such factors govern our use of language as a class, gender, age, education, and social status. A subgroup of this area is anthropological linguistics, which is concerned with the system and practice of language in diverse cultures and to what degree the cultural environment has influenced language development. The study of language and society or sociolinguistics – can be dated to about the middle of the twentieth century. Before that, some authors mentioned in what manner language usage was influenced or indeed directed by socially relevant factors, such as profession, age, class, or gender. Undeniably, the father of modern linguistics, Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913), perceived language as a kind of social behavior, and in this, he reflected. The word 'Sociolinguistics' was coined already in 1939 in the title of an article by Thomas C. Hodson. Social context looks at associations between language and society and looks at language as individuals use it. It studies the relationship between a person's speech and social identity. Social context is engaging, stimulating, but consists of many difficulties. There are very few definite responses to things. We essentially try to become conscious of the way language differs according to who persons are and what they are doing. The behavior they have to their language. People need to remember that there has been very little research into the social context. Social context will think about diversity within a language. Everyone who speaks a language has a vast linguistic selection, except they have very severe learning LANGUAGE PROGRAMS AND POLICIES IN MULTILINGUAL SOCIETIES  23 language difficulties. It means they can use the language in many different ways, depending on the circumstances they have. The kind of language that they use also depends on their social background and social identity. Various Definitions of Sociolinguistics 1. "The study of the link between language and society, language variation, and language attitudes." (Spolsky, 2010). 2. A branch of anthropological linguistics examines how language and culture are related and how language is used in different social contexts (Bell, 1976). 3. A study of the relationship between language and social factors such as class, age, gender, and ethnicity. (Hudson, 1996). 4. The study of stylistic and social variation of language. (Wardhaugh, 2010). 5. The study of language concerning its socio-cultural context. (Van Dijk, 2009). 6. The study of the effect of any aspects of society, including cultural norms, expectations, and context on the way language is used (Trudgill, 2000). 7. Sociolinguistics attempts to find correlations between social structure and linguistic structure and observe any changes that occur. (Gumperz, 1971). 8. Sociolinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and society. (Holmes,1992). 9. Sociolinguistics is that part of linguistics which is concerned with language as a social and cultural phenomenon. It investigates the field. of language and society and has close connections with the social sciences, especially social psychology, anthropology, human geography, and sociology. (Trudgill, 2000) 10. The sociolinguistic perspective has enabled researchers to document and measure a hereto overlooked type of variation in language use and language behavior. (Fishman, 2001). 11. Sociolinguistics is the study of the social uses of language. The most productive studies in the four decades of sociolinguistic research have emanated from determining linguistic variants' social evaluation. These are also areas most susceptible to scientific methods such as hypothesis formation, logical inference, and statistical testing. (Chambers, 2002). LANGUAGE PROGRAMS AND POLICIES IN MULTILINGUAL SOCIETIES  24 All the definitions mentioned above make it clear that Sociolinguistics is a discipline that links sociology with linguistics. Sociolinguistics emphases on language use, and on what can be said in a specific language, to whom, by whom, in whose presence, when and where, in what means and under what social circumstances. Relationship Between Language and Society The multifaceted relationship between society and language has been seriously discussed, particularly over the past few decades. Several essential theories and hypotheses come to mind when considering this relationship; The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis describes how language influences how we observe our world. It is often mentioned as the main contributor to the conversation on culture and language. The debate very much mirrors the famous "chicken and egg" debate: which comes first, society or language? 1. Language performs various functions in society, and society does the same way. If one does not occur, the other one will be affected. 2. Language is a crucial tool for communication purposes. Simultaneously, society controls our language by giving us preferences regarding what is acceptable and not. 3. Social changes produce changes in languages. Language incorporates social values. 4. Language influences society and people. 5. People influence language and language use. In the study of Sociolinguistics, one has to do with the interaction of language and society. It studies how all characteristics of society affect speech and how language has an impact on society. The human society will be lifeless if deprived of language, and so will be the language without its speakers. It means that language and society are inseparable from each other. Ferdinand de Saussure developed this idea in his book The Course in General Linguistics, published later in 1916, where he stated that 'language is primarily a social activity.' Factors Affecting Language Use 1. Social class: Social class is one of the essential factors in the interpretation of literary discourse. One can understand the social level of a person based on social class. Two main groups of language users, mostly those performing non-manual work and those with more years of education, are the 'upper class.' In contrast, those who serve some kind of manual labor are 'lower class.' The terms' lower' and 'upper' are frequently used to subdivide the social classes. Therefore, differences between the upper class can be compared with the lower class. Notably, individuals are incredibly conscious of the variances in speech LANGUAGE PROGRAMS AND POLICIES IN MULTILINGUAL SOCIETIES  25 patterns that mark their social class and frequently adjust their style to the interlocutor. 2. Age: Age affects sociolinguistic patterns is very obvious when relating the speech of adults with that of children. It is known that the variances in anatomy and physiology or biological age are mainly responsible for these variances, but socially–concerned with distinction also occurs in the course of life. At least three stages- childhood, adolescence, and adulthood, are supposed to give significant results in discussing such variations. In the early childhood period, relatively immature verbal patterns are seen because of ongoing language learning and incomplete growth of the child's vocal anatomy. However, local forms of pronunciation begin from this stage of the acquisition process. From their earliest speech stages, children develop sociolinguistic competence. They engage themselves in complex register variation and become acutely aware of the relationship between social roles and language inconsistency. They first acquire the social functions of variables before they progress in linguistic constraints. In the teenage period, the peer group linguistically influences the speaker, and sometimes its role can reach the native influence. At the age of twelve, the pressure to be conventional to peers' standards is excellent enough to eradicate most of the initially acquired linguistic differences. It brings about a noticeably standardized local accent. In old age, the learner is supposed to be firm with the phonological structure of the language. The speaker uses standard language due to the circumstances of the speaker or personal ambitions of the speaker. Some sociolinguistic variations can be marked during the period of adulthood. 3. Education: Education is one of the essential aspects of the sociolinguistic explanation of the literary discourse. The level of education impacts the language of the speaker. More highly educated speakers and those belonging to a higher social class tend to use more features belonging to the standard language. In contrast, the area's original language is better preserved in the language of the minor and less educated classes. The first language use often reflects one's education and social identity. The standard language is considered a language of educated people; non-standard language has usually been regarded as the language used in unsophisticated and uneducated individuals. 4. Gender: Gender plays an essential role in the study of linguistic expressions used by speakers. It is noticed that the language of the female members is diverse from the way their male counterparts. There has been an inherent relation between language and gender. The patterns of language use of males are different from those of females in terms of intonation patterns and speech quantity. Although males and females belong LANGUAGE PROGRAMS AND POLICIES IN MULTILINGUAL SOCIETIES  26 to the same speech community, they may practice different linguistic forms from a given social class. The linguistic forms used by women and men contrast to some extent in all speech communities. ABSTRACTION Answer the following questions: 1. How does the speaker's social role affect language use? ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ 2. How does culture influence linguistic behavior? ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ 3. What is the relation between language and society? ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ 4. What is the relationship between language and people? ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ 5. Make a list of how many groups you are a member of, i.e., do you move out and in groups in a day, a week, or even a month? (i.e., class, women' s/men's group, church, social club (name it) sports club (name the sport), music, etc. ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ APPLICATION Explain your answers on the blanks below. 1. What are some of the grammatical variances between the language of men and women that have been revealed in linguistic research? ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ LANGUAGE PROGRAMS AND POLICIES IN MULTILINGUAL SOCIETIES  27 2. In your own words, briefly describe two of the possible explanations for these grammatical differences. ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ 3. In your opinion, is one of the more plausible than the other? Why? ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ Insights Keep in mind: Language is mutually a system of communication between a social phenomenon and Individuals. Sociolinguistics examines how language and culture are related and how language is used in different social contexts. The human society will be lifeless without language, and so will be the language without its speakers. It means that language and society are inseparable from each other. Factors Affecting Language Use: Social class, age, education, and gender. Post-test Multiple Choice. Circle the letter of your choice. 1. Sociolinguistics is most appropriately defined as: a. The study of human behavior b. The scientific study of vocal sounds c. The study of animal vocalizations d. The scientific study of language usage 2. Which is NOT a part of sociolinguistics? a. The study of people's attitudes toward specific speech characteristics b. The study of the sounds in an articulated language c. The general perception of a dialect within a society d. It is the study of socioeconomic and political power factors and their influence on language change. 3. All of the following statements about language are true, EXCEPT: a. It is a system of communication. LANGUAGE PROGRAMS AND POLICIES IN MULTILINGUAL SOCIETIES  28 b. It often involves mutual intelligibility. c. It can include many dialects. d. All the word meanings are the same. 4. The study of how socio-cultural norms and contexts shape language use in society is called. a. Sociolinguistics c. Phonetics b. Speech pathology d. Linguistics 5. The following are factors affecting language use EXCEPT: a. Age and gender c. Education b. Social status d. linguistic determinism Essay: 1. Explain the sociolinguistics situation of multilingual societies. Ex. New Zealand, Philippines, etc. 2. Why is gender considered as variable sociolinguistics? 3. Suppose language is an essential human attribute, and humans are necessarily social beings. What problems and paradoxes do you see for theoretical work in sociolinguistics if the last grapple with the relationships between linguistic and social factors? References: Eble, C. (2005). What is Sociolinguistics?: Sociolinguistics Basics. http://www.pbs.org/speak/speech/sociolinguistics/sociolinguistics/ Fishman, J. A. (ed.) (2001), Can Threatened Languages be Saved? Reversing Language Shift, Revisited: A 21st Century Perspective. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Gumperz, J. J. (1971), Language in Social Groups. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. Holmes, J. (1992). An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. London: Longman. Meyerhoff, Miriam. (2006), Introducing Sociolinguistics. London/New York: Routledge. Trudgill, Peter. (2000), Sociolinguistics: An Introduction to Language and Society. England: Penguin Books. Wardhaugh, R. (2006). An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. Fifth Edition. Blackwell Publishing. LANGUAGE PROGRAMS AND POLICIES IN MULTILINGUAL SOCIETIES  29 LESSON 4 SOCIOLINGUISTIC CONCEPTS Duration: 4 hours Introduction A language is not just words. It's a culture, a tradition, a community's unification, a whole history that creates what a community is. It's all embodied in a language. – Noam Chomsky Languages continue to evolve, and so does our understanding of it. As it develops, it brings discoveries of concepts and paradigms that explain various linguistic phenomena. These paradigms shape how we think about languages, why we use them, and to what extent. In a world of languages, there are at least 7,102 known languages alive in the world today. There are 23 languages with at least 50 million first-language speakers. China has the most native speakers around the globe (Ethnologue, 2016). But the question is, how do languages evolve? Why does it matter? Sociolinguistics has been a dynamic field of study throughout the years. The connections between languages and society have been established since Noam Chomsky and William Labov emerged in the 1960s. Peter Trudgill (1983) describes sociolinguistics as a part of linguistics concerned with language as a social and cultural phenomenon. It investigates relationships between language and society to understand better how language functions in communication processes and language structure (Wardaugh, 1986). With sociolinguistics, the reality is, there is nothing in this world that is not touched by language. It is everywhere and in any field that we know – religion, politics, art, law, etc. With the development of sociolinguistics as a field, several concepts have also emerged. In this lesson, the students will familiarize themselves with these sociolinguistic concepts and its applications to language policymaking and development. LANGUAGE PROGRAMS AND POLICIES IN MULTILINGUAL SOCIETIES  30 Lesson Objectives Upon accomplishment of this lesson, you are expected to: 1. Demonstrate mastery of the various sociolinguistic concepts revolving around English Language Teaching; 2. Relate sociolinguistic concepts into the study of language programs and policies; 3. Apply these sociolinguistic concepts in policymaking, language teaching, and research. Before You Proceed… Watch the following videos online. Observe the use of language in the following situations. How are they similar? How are they different? ▪ Ms. Janina San Miguel (Bb. Pilipinas 2008) Question and Answer Link:https://youtu.be/NZsHsjfviXM ▪ Ms. South Carolina (Miss Teen USA 2007) Question and Answer Link:https://youtu.be/lj3iNxZ8Dww ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ LANGUAGE PROGRAMS AND POLICIES IN MULTILINGUAL SOCIETIES  31 Lesson Proper ACTIVITY Daniels (1985) wrote an article about his 'nine ideas about language.' How much do you agree with his ideas? Tick the box that best corresponds to your answer. Strongly Strongly Statements Agree Neutral Disagree Agree Disagree 1. Children learn their native language quickly, efficiently, and mainly without instruction. 2. Language operates by rules. 3. All languages have three major components: a sound system, vocabulary, and a system of grammar. 4. Everyone speaks a dialect. 5. Speakers of all languages employ a range of styles and a set of sub-dialects or jargon. 6. Language change is expected. 7. Languages are intimately related to societies and individuals who use them. 8. Value judgments about different languages or dialects are matters of taste. 9. Writing is a derivative of speech. ANALYSIS BILINGUALISM Did you know that 50% of the world's population is bilingual? Bilingualism is evident in reading, writing, listening, and speaking. Bilingualism denotes the ability to speak two LANGUAGE PROGRAMS AND POLICIES IN MULTILINGUAL SOCIETIES  32 (or more) languages (Fromkin, 2003). It refers to the full proficiency in two languages. There are two types of bilingualism: – Individual bilingualism: within one person A psychological state of a person who has access to two language codes to serve communication purposes There are numerous degrees of bilingualism and various situations under which a person may become bilingual – Societal bilingualism: within a society Two languages are used in a society or community, and that several people can use two languages Switzerland and Canada are two examples of nations that recognize more than one official language There are five dimensions of bilingualism: 1. Cognitive organization of two languages 2. Age of acquisition 3. Language proficiency 4. A sequence of acquisition of two languages 5. Societal factors All of these dimensions contribute to the proficiency and mental lexicon of a bilingual individual. It is also important to note that some scholars deemed bilingualism a disorder rather than a proficiency because it alters the way we think. The patterns seem to be abnormal. There are also several types of bilinguals. They are summarized as follows: Classification Types of Description Bilinguals Compound ▪ Has a single semantic system but two linguistic codes Bilingual ▪ Usually refers to a person whose two languages are Compound vs. acquired at the same time Coordinate vs. Coordinate ▪ Has two semantic systems and two linguistic codes Subordinate Bilingual ▪ Usually refers to someone whose two languages are learned in distinctively different contexts. Bilinguals ▪ The weaker language is interpreted through, the Subordinate Bilingual stronger language Early ▪ Someone who has acquired two languages early in childhood (usually received systematic training/ Early vs. Late Bilinguals learning of a second language before age 6) Bilinguals Late ▪ Someone who becomes bilingual later than childhood Bilinguals (after age 12) Balanced ▪ Someone whose mastery of two languages is roughly Balanced vs. Bilinguals equivalent Dominant Dominant ▪ Someone with more excellent proficiency in one of his Bilinguals vs. Bilinguals or her languages and uses it significantly more than the Semilingual other language Semilingual ▪ Someone with insufficient knowledge of either language Successive Successive ▪ Someone who learns one language after already vs. Bilinguals knowing another LANGUAGE PROGRAMS AND POLICIES IN MULTILINGUAL SOCIETIES  33 Simultaneous ▪ It is a situation for all those who become bilingual as vs. Receptive adults ▪ Also called "consecutive bilinguals." Bilinguals ▪ Someone who learns two languages as "first Simultaneous Bilinguals languages." ▪ A person who is simultaneous bilingual goes from speaking no languages at all directly to speaking two languages ▪ Infants who are exposed to two languages from birth will become simultaneous bilinguals. Receptive ▪ Being able to comprehend two languages but express Bilinguals oneself in only one Additive ▪ The second language learning does not affect the Additive vs. Bilingual learning of a first language ▪ Both languages are well-developed Subtractive ▪ The second language learning interferes with the Subtractive Bilinguals learning of a first language Bilingual ▪ The second language replaces the first language Elite ▪ Individuals who choose to have a bilingual home often Bilinguals to enhance social status. Elite vs. Folk Folk ▪ Individuals who develop second language capacity Bilinguals Bilinguals under the circumstance that is not frequently of their choosing, and in situations where the society does not value their innate language Language acquisition (2) - LinkedIn SlideShare. https://www.slideshare.net/cmcgoun/language- acquisition-25957401 CODE-SWITCHING Codeswitching (C.S.) is a speech style in which fluent speakers switch languages between or within sentences (Fromkin, 2003). Here are some examples of code- switched utterances. – I mean, c’est un idiot, cemec-là (French-English) – Women zuotianqukan de movie were astounding (Mandarin-English) – Chigum ton-uls ops-nunde, I cannot buy it (Korean-English) – Kaya ko namangawin 'Yung assignment, but I will do it tomorrow nalang (Filipino – English) Codeswitching reflects the grammars of both languages simultaneously and occurs wherever groups of bilinguals speak the same languages. Gumpers and Hernandez (1969:2) put it "each time minority language groups arise into interaction with majority language groups under conditions of rapid social change." Hence, code-switching is a feature of stable bilingualism in communities where most speakers can speak both dialects. Codeswitching does not constitute "broken" English and is not a language disability in which bilinguals try to cope with incomplete mastery of either language. C.S. is a reflection of community norms (Mahootian, 2005) Codeswitching has its grammatical structure. For example, codeswitching follows the word direction rules of both languages. LANGUAGE PROGRAMS AND POLICIES IN MULTILINGUAL SOCIETIES  34 My mom fixes tamales verdes *My mom fixes verdes tamales Mi mamáhace green tamales *Mi mamáhace tamales green Gardner and Chloros (2009) enumerated the characteristics of Code-Switching as follows: 1. Code-Switching as a sign of different/ opposite tendencies ▪ C.S. arises in various contexts, as a symptom of quite the opposite developments, from accommodation to divergence and from language maintenance to language shift. ▪ C.S. is seen as an essential component of change 2. Code-Switching as a form of Language Interaction ▪ C.S. was merely the alternation of two varieties which preserved their monolingual characteristics. ▪ Two languages come into contact; thus, several processes occur borrowing, morphophonemic integration, and native synonym displacement. Code-Switching is one of the possible contact outcomes between two (or more) varieties, often coexisting and overlapping with other results. Bilinguals select "the most parsimonious grammar that serves both languages" (Otheguy, 1995). With this, C.S. is becoming a liquid and natural process. LANGUAGE CHANGE Language changes over time at a varying level. These changes occur in sounds or pronunciation, meaning, and vocabulary. The language also varies in time, physical space or setting, and social context. But these changes are caused by the speaker's innovations. Based on research, changes in language are usually forwarded by the speakers in the adolescent age. Usually, the change happens in this manner. New form Spread Usage Replace A change in sound, for example, in new to nuclear (/new-clear/). This manner is usually a change proposed by people in a higher social class. We call this 'changes from above.' These are changes in language that people are aware of. Whereas 'changes from below' are the changes in language that people are not aware of. An example would be some changes in vowel pronunciation (beer, bear). Such changes exhibit the spread of vernacular forms that imitate the speech that is considered prestigious or may be an expression of solidarity. LANGUAGE PROGRAMS AND POLICIES IN MULTILINGUAL SOCIETIES  35 TYPES OF LANGUAGE CHANGE There are three types of language change. Please refer to the table below. Types of Language Description Examples Change The formation of the new Before the detection of vocabulary used to the new world, the designate some physical word America did not Incremental Change intervention, new social exist in Europe. motivation, or new items of knowledge Words that are not used any Words related to longer since the object is nohunting or falconry Decremental Change longer used and archery are not commonly used nowadays The replacement of words or 'rooves' as the plural structures, but both ways of 'roof' in place of Replacement Change coexist in the language used standard English' roofs' HOW DOES LANGUAGE CHANGE SPREAD ? Language change spreads from group to group, from style to style, and from word to word. It is usually being studied in apparent-time and real-time. Apparent-time analyzes language change by comparing the speech of people of different ages. Studies have shown that younger speakers use more of the newer forms by observing the increase and decrease of a form by an age group. Whereas, language change in real-time happens by observing the changes that occur over some time. This method, insofar, is the most reliable because it considers the social factors affecting language use. REASONS FOR LANGUAGE CHANGE There are three most essential descriptions for language/ linguistic change. 1. Social Status - Persons of higher social status in the community introduce changes from other communities that are considered prestigious. Example: ▪ Upper-class London ▪ Lower class people spread less-conscious linguistic changes. 2. Gender - Differences in the speeches of male and female can cause a linguistic change LANGUAGE PROGRAMS AND POLICIES IN MULTILINGUAL SOCIETIES  36 – It can be whichever of the two who introduce the change. – Females tend to introduce changes associated with both prestigious and vernacular forms. – Male introduce changes associated with vernacular forms. 3. Interaction - Interaction among individuals is crucial in channeling linguistic change – Linguistic change in communities with little interaction with the outside world progress slowly. – Isolation causes linguistic conservatism. Example: Iceland LANGUAGE SHIFT Holmes (1992) described Language Shift as replacing one language by another as the primary means of communication and socialization within the community. The following factors drive it: a. Demographic factor -A factor playing a role in the development of language shift in which there is a community of language moving to a region whose a language is different from another language, thus the presence of a tendency to shift toward a new language b. Attitude/Value factors– refers to negative and positive attitudes toward a language. A negative mindset can accelerate language shift. It can occur when an ethnic language is not highly valued and not seen as a symbol of identity. Holmes (1992) stated that "young people are the fastest to shift languages. – A positive attitude toward a language might support effects to use the minority language in a variety of domains and also to help people resist pressure from the majority group to switch to their language (Holmes, 1992) c. Economic factor - an essential element that sees the need for a language shift. As Holmes (1992) states, "job seekers see the importance of learning a new language used widely in business." d. Social and political factors – imposes language shift in a multilingual country. The authority usually chooses one language as the lingua franca to unite the various kinds of ethnic groups; consequently, most speakers with particular indigenous language decrease (Bayer, 2005). - Social factor refers to where the language shift occurs as most communities consider another language in a predominantly monolingual society that dominated. LANGUAGE PROGRAMS AND POLICIES IN MULTILINGUAL SOCIETIES  37 LANGUAGE DEATH Language Death is a term used to refer to when a community is the last one in the world to use a particular language (Crystal, 2003). Crystal (2003) further explains that a language dies when nobody speaks it anymore. When all the people who talk about a language die, the language dies with them (Holmes, 1992). TYPES OF LANGUAGE DEATH Language Death comes in many types. 1. GRADUAL DEATH – involves the gradual replacement of one language by another Example: Replacement of Gaelic language by English in parts of Scotland 2. SUDDEN DEATH – the rapid death of a language without a prevailing period of bilingualism. The last speaker is monolingual in the vanishing language, as in the case of Tasmania. 3. RADICAL DEATH – due to severe political suppression, a community may opt- out of self-defense to stop speaking their language. The last utterers are thus fluent in the dying language but do not use it or transmit it to their children. 4. BOTTOM-TO-TOP DEATH – a language ceases to be used as a medium of conversation but may survive in particular use like a religion or folk songs. CAUSE OF LANGUAGE DEATH Tsunoda (2006, p. 57) says that a language may be vanished due to language shift. He further splits the causes of language endangerment into: 1. natural/environmental decline or loss of population - natural catastrophes (volcanic eruption, earthquake, droughts, floods, and famine), diseases and epidemics, violent acts of humans such as warfare, slavery, massacres, and genocide 2. Political, military dispossession of the land – due to invasion, conquest, colonization, settlement, or grazing; relocation of people (people may be relocated to an unfamiliar – and often inhospitable – environment for settlement. Relocation may be executed by force, such as prisoners. 3. social mixing of speakers of different languages – began by intermarriage reservations/ settlements, boarding schools, improved mass media and communication in the dominant language (T.V., radio, broadcast films, videos, C.D.s, printing press, books, and magazines; indifferent attitude (language apathy and language negligence) LANGUAGE PROGRAMS AND POLICIES IN MULTILINGUAL SOCIETIES  38 4. language policy - the education of children (promoting dominant languages); prohibition of the use of the indigenous language in education, the imposition of the dominant language punishment, and humiliation for the benefit of indigenous language 5. cultural/religious - relative lack of indigenous literature; aboriginal literature is limited to linguistic work (grammar and translation), religion (hymn books, Bible translations), and school curriculum materials 6. linguistic – Language purism can lead to language loss (Fishman, 1964). PIDGINS AND CREOLES When utterers of different languages come together for trade, job, employment, or immigration and colonization, they may produce a new language to serve as a rudimentary lingua franca. The made communication system is called a pidgin. Pidgins are rule-governed but have simplified grammatical structures and lexicons. Most of the pidgin vocabulary comes from the dominant language (the superstrate or lexifier language). At the same time, the other languages are substance languages and contribute to the grammatical structure. Many linguists believe that pidgin evolves: First, the pidgin has no native speaker, is severely an exchange language reserved for special functions, and has very few clear grammatical rules and few words. Later, if the need for the pidgin remains, the pidgin becomes alleviated. If children begin to learn this alleviated pidgin as a native language, then it becomes a creole. Pidginization includes a simplification of some language and a reduction of the number of domains of use. In contrast, creolization consists of expanding lexicon and grammar and increasing the number of contexts of use. Pidgins are somewhat rudimentary, but they do have rules. Some of these rules are: Phonemes may have multiple allophonic pronunciations Pidgins typically lack the function of morpheme Auxiliary verbs, articles, prepositions, case endings, tense, plurals, and others Reduplication and compounding are very common in pidgins to expand otherwise small lexicons (data from Komtok): big-big "enormous." luk-luk “stare at” grasbilongfes "beard." hanbilongpisin “wings (of a bird)” Syntactically, people may create sentences based on their native language's word order until the pidgin becomes stabilized. A creole is a language that has progressed LANGUAGE PROGRAMS AND POLICIES IN MULTILINGUAL SOCIETIES  39 in a contact situation to become the natural language of a generation of speakers. Where a pidgin is simplified, a creole is just as expressive and complex as any human language. Creoles may have inflections, more complex pronoun systems, and the number of compounds may be reduced. For example, warabilong skin (“sweat”) becomes skinwara How are children able to construct a creole based on the rudimentary input of the pidgin? And why do creoles around the world have so many linguistic similarities? One answer is that their innate linguistic capabilities allow them to flesh out the pidgin into a full-fledged language. An example is the Tok Pisin. Tok Pisin was creolized throughout the 20th century and is spoken in Papua New Guinea. Tok Pisin has its writing system, literature, mass media and is used for debate in Papua New Guinea’s parliament. Sign languages can also be pidgins. In the 1980s, adult deaf people came together in Nicaragua and constructed a pidgin for communication. But when children joined the group, they creolized the pidgin, and it became the full-fledged sign language Idioma de Signos Nicaragüense (ISN) ABSTRACTION Answer the following questions: 1. Code-switching is a result of language contact. With CS, two or more languages can be mixed and used at the same time. How do languages preserve their own identity? ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ 2. Like plants and animal species, when a language becomes nonexistent, it is gone forever. Over half of the world's 6800 languages are endangered. How do you think we can preserve and conserve our dying languages? Suggest some ways. ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ APPLICATION These some words from Tok Pisin. From what English words are they derived? The answer is shown for the first entry. LANGUAGE PROGRAMS AND POLICIES IN MULTILINGUAL SOCIETIES  40 Insights Languages work within the scope of the society, and a society cannot work without a language. These two concepts are intertwined and are difficult to separate from each other. One sociolinguistic concept can affect another. Like in the world we live in, languages are ever-changing, and they also live a life where they can flourish and prosper. But if we, the speakers and users of languages, abuse and neglect them, they might die. Post-test Based on the discussion, determine whether the following statements are TRUE or FALSE. On the space provided, write the letter T if you think that the idea is right to the sociolinguistic concepts discussed above and F if it is not. __________ 1. Learning two or more languages confuse a child and lowers his/ her I.Q. __________ 2. A child would learn one language properly before learning a second one. __________ 3. An individual cannot be a real bilingual if he learns a second language late. __________ 4. Most individuals in the world are monolingual; that is, they only know how to speak one language. __________ 5. If everyone spoke the same language, we would benefit from increased understanding and efficiency and lose nothing. LANGUAGE PROGRAMS AND POLICIES IN MULTILINGUAL SOCIETIES  41 References: Gardner-Chloros, P. (2009). Code-switching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. DOI:10.1017/CBO9780511609787 Kramsch, C., and Widdowson, H. G. (2001). Language and Culture. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp.65-77. Quintan, J. (2015). Language Maintenance, Shift, and Death. Accessed from www.slideshare.net on August 17, 2020 Ramirez, N. (2010).Language Change. Accessed fromwww.slideshare.net on August 17, 2020 Uzir, A. (2013). Language Change. Accessed from www.slideshare.net on August 17, 2020. LANGUAGE PROGRAMS AND POLICIES IN MULTILINGUAL SOCIETIES  42 LESSON 5 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF ENGLISH CURRICULUM IN THE PHILIPPINES Duration: 4 hours Introduction During the old times in the Philippines, the fundamentals of education were given to children. This schooling was both technical and vocational. The father trained his sons to be hunters, warriors, miners, fishermen, shipbuilders, and lumbermen. On her part, the mother trained her children in horticulture, cooking, serving, and other household arts. It is said that there was a barangay education in ancient Panay called Bothoan under the care of a priest, usually an older man. The subjects taught to the students in this barangay school were reading, writing, arithmetic, the use of arms, and lubus (the possession of kinaadman or amulets). Thus, during that period, schooling was tailored to their needs. Owing to the conquest of several foreign countries and historical events, our curriculum has undergone several changes. However, we have still preserved some of the ancient teachings that are present even in our day. With the country's commemoration of independence in 1946, scarcely seven decades ago, every part of the education system was put into line with the new status of a new nation striving to achieve and maintain political and economic freedom and create a nation fully unified in social and cultural diversity. Lesson Objectives Upon accomplishment of this lesson, you are expected to: 1. Familiarize with the acronyms which are associated with the historical background of the English curriculum in the Philippines; 2. Provide contextual evidence about the history of the English Curriculum in the Philippines. LANGUAGE PROGRAMS AND POLICIES IN MULTILINGUAL SOCIETIES  43 3. Analyze the importance of each period in the development of the English curriculum in the Philippines. Before You Proceed… Give the terms representing the meaning of the following acronyms by rearranging the entries inside the word box. Teaching Second Language English Nationalism Education Advancement Decentralized Committee Elementary Achievement Movement National Secondary Bilingual Policy New 1. ELT School _________________________________ Curriculum Program 2. TESL _________________________________ Test 3. MAN Development as a/of for/for the _________________________________ 4. EDCOM _________________________________ 5. NEAT _________________________________ 6. NSAT _________________________________ 7. BEP _________________________________ 8. NESC _________________________________ 9. PRODED _________________________________ 10. SEDP _________________________________ Lesson Proper Upon writing this article, English Language Teaching