Podcast
Questions and Answers
According to Bloomfield (1935), what is bilingualism?
According to Bloomfield (1935), what is bilingualism?
The native-like control of two languages
Which of the following is NOT one of the four language modalities mentioned by Macnamara (1967)?
Which of the following is NOT one of the four language modalities mentioned by Macnamara (1967)?
What does Grossjean (1989) define as the key aspect of bilingualism?
What does Grossjean (1989) define as the key aspect of bilingualism?
The ability to communicate in more than one language
Which of these refers to the exposure and acquisition of two languages from birth?
Which of these refers to the exposure and acquisition of two languages from birth?
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What is the main focus of Mennen's (2011) definition of bilingualism?
What is the main focus of Mennen's (2011) definition of bilingualism?
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What is the term used to describe the ability to alternate between two languages?
What is the term used to describe the ability to alternate between two languages?
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Kohnert (2007) suggests that bilingual individuals must be equally proficient in both languages.
Kohnert (2007) suggests that bilingual individuals must be equally proficient in both languages.
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What is the term for the influence one language may have on another?
What is the term for the influence one language may have on another?
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The level of proficiency in each language is not impacted by how often and when each language is used.
The level of proficiency in each language is not impacted by how often and when each language is used.
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What does the abbreviation BIWS stand for?
What does the abbreviation BIWS stand for?
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Which of the following aspects are NOT mentioned as potential triggers for stuttering in the Packman-Antanasio model?
Which of the following aspects are NOT mentioned as potential triggers for stuttering in the Packman-Antanasio model?
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The Packman-Antanasio Model suggests that bilingual individuals who stutter are more likely to face challenges in managing two languages.
The Packman-Antanasio Model suggests that bilingual individuals who stutter are more likely to face challenges in managing two languages.
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Studies have consistently shown that all bilingual individuals who stutter experience more disfluencies in their dominant language.
Studies have consistently shown that all bilingual individuals who stutter experience more disfluencies in their dominant language.
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What is the technical term used to described normal disfluencies that occur in bilingual speakers?
What is the technical term used to described normal disfluencies that occur in bilingual speakers?
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Carias and Ingram's (2006) study found that bilingual preschool children who stutter displayed more disfluencies in their non-dominant language.
Carias and Ingram's (2006) study found that bilingual preschool children who stutter displayed more disfluencies in their non-dominant language.
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What is MLU, and how is it typically used in bilingualism research?
What is MLU, and how is it typically used in bilingualism research?
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The participants in Carias and Ingram's (2006) study were formally diagnosed with stuttering.
The participants in Carias and Ingram's (2006) study were formally diagnosed with stuttering.
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What is the recommended approach for assessing bilingual individuals who stutter?
What is the recommended approach for assessing bilingual individuals who stutter?
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Bilingual speakers are prone to word retrieval deficits, which contribute to disfluent speech, but do not typically experience other typical disfluencies, such as hesitations or revisions.
Bilingual speakers are prone to word retrieval deficits, which contribute to disfluent speech, but do not typically experience other typical disfluencies, such as hesitations or revisions.
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What is the main concern regarding the use of monolingual guidelines for assessing bilingual individuals who stutter?
What is the main concern regarding the use of monolingual guidelines for assessing bilingual individuals who stutter?
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It is generally considered acceptable to use monolingual clinicians to assess bilingual clients who stutter.
It is generally considered acceptable to use monolingual clinicians to assess bilingual clients who stutter.
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What key factors should be considered when evaluating stuttering in bilingual individuals?
What key factors should be considered when evaluating stuttering in bilingual individuals?
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Shenker (2011) recommends using standardized tests to assess bilingual individuals who stutter.
Shenker (2011) recommends using standardized tests to assess bilingual individuals who stutter.
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According to Shenker (2011), what is the importance of involving family members in assessment?
According to Shenker (2011), what is the importance of involving family members in assessment?
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Which of the following is NOT a recommended practice for the treatment of bilingual individuals who stutter?
Which of the following is NOT a recommended practice for the treatment of bilingual individuals who stutter?
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The treatment approach for bilingual individuals who stutter is fundamentally different from that of monolingual individuals who stutter.
The treatment approach for bilingual individuals who stutter is fundamentally different from that of monolingual individuals who stutter.
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What is the overall finding regarding the generalization of treatment for stuttering from one language to another?
What is the overall finding regarding the generalization of treatment for stuttering from one language to another?
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The Lidcombe Program has been shown to be effective in treating stuttering across different languages.
The Lidcombe Program has been shown to be effective in treating stuttering across different languages.
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Which of these is NOT a study that supports the generalizability of treatment for stuttering across languages?
Which of these is NOT a study that supports the generalizability of treatment for stuttering across languages?
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The study by Roberts & Shenker (2007) and Shenker (2004) demonstrate that treatment focused on one language can successfully improve fluency in the other language.
The study by Roberts & Shenker (2007) and Shenker (2004) demonstrate that treatment focused on one language can successfully improve fluency in the other language.
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Bakhtiar & Packman (2009) studied the effectiveness of using the Lidcombe Program simultaneously in both languages on bilingual clients.
Bakhtiar & Packman (2009) studied the effectiveness of using the Lidcombe Program simultaneously in both languages on bilingual clients.
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What is a key challenge in managing the stuttering of a 5-year-old boy who is fluent in Polish, Norwegian, and English, with a particular preference for Norwegian?
What is a key challenge in managing the stuttering of a 5-year-old boy who is fluent in Polish, Norwegian, and English, with a particular preference for Norwegian?
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The child in the case study reports experiencing disfluencies in all three languages.
The child in the case study reports experiencing disfluencies in all three languages.
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What is the most suitable approach when addressing the case study situation?
What is the most suitable approach when addressing the case study situation?
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Study Notes
Bilingualism and its Relevance to Stuttering
- Bilingualism is defined in various ways.
- Bloomfield (1935) defines it as the native-like control of two languages.
- Macnamara (1967) defines it as having minimal competence in one language in the four modalities (speaking, writing, listening, and reading).
- Grossjean (1989) characterizes it as the ability to communicate in more than one language, with skills varying across time. Factors like language use, proficiency, setting, and conversation partner impact the skill level.
- Mennen (2011) defines bilingualism as exposure and acquisition of two languages from birth (simultaneous) or the acquisition of a second language after the age of three (sequential).
- Paradis et al. (2011) define dual language learners as individuals learning two languages simultaneously from infancy or who learn a second language after the primary language.
Cognitive Processes in Bilingual Acquisition
- Bilingual individuals engage in various cognitive processes, including:
- Identifying similarities and differences between languages concerning phonetic inventory, syntactic structure, and linguistic complexity.
- Accessing lexical items effectively.
- Inhibiting and suppressing the language not in use.
- Alternating between languages—also known as code-switching.
- Transferring knowledge from one language to another on semantic and phonological levels.
Bilingual Individuals and Stuttering
- Bilingual individuals may exhibit different levels of proficiency and fluency across different languages.
- Proficiency may change with time and language use.
- Language shift can occur, creating weaker or stronger languages, regardless of acquisition time. Proficiency can vary by home language, academics, social settings, and professional use.
- Some studies indicate that greater disfluencies may occur in the more dominant or proficient language, while other studies found greater disfluencies in weaker or less dominant languages.
Packman-Antanasio 3-Factor Model of Stuttering
- This model suggests stuttering stems from:
- Neural processing deficits, which include delayed or deactivated activation of certain sounds.
- Aspects of spoken language (phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics).
- Internal and external stimuli that modulate behavior. Also influenced by cognitive resources.
- Social, cultural, and familial pressures.
Prevalence of Stuttering and Bilingualism
- Approximately 70 million people worldwide stutter.
- Approximately 50% of the world's population is bilingual.
- Around 3 million people stutter in the U.S.
- About 22% of U.S. adults aged 5+ speak multiple languages.
Stuttering Behaviors in Bilingual Individuals
- Common stuttering behaviors found include lexical revisions, grammatical revisions, phonological revisions, filled pauses, repetitions.
Bilingualism and Speech Production
- Bilingual children who speak multiple languages often demonstrate a higher frequency of normal disfluencies (ums, hesitations, revisions, repetitions, or mazes) compared to monolingual individuals.
- Mazes in bilingual children may also include interjections, initial sound repetitions, and speech strings that interrupt fluent speech production.
- Some research shows that bilingual children between ages 4-10 show a higher frequency of disfluencies in their dominant languages. Disfluencies may be elevated in the language with less fluency, or the same levels as a monolingual individual.
Clinical Application and Assessment
- Bilingual assessment should not differ substantially from monolingual approaches, but considerations should be given for differences and potential variability that could exist.
- Assessment should use conversational, narrative, and reading samples in both languages.
- Assessment should explore varying linguistic levels of complexity to determine the location of disfluencies (e.g., word, phrase, etc.).
- Clinicians should use non-standardized methods, such as ethnographic interviews, to better understand linguistic nuances.
- Examples and descriptions of stuttering-like and non-stuttering-like disfluencies should be provided as a guide.
- Interpreters should be utilized when applicable.
Caveats in Bilingual Assessment
- Applying monolingual assessment guidelines to bilingual individuals may not fully capture the nuance of the language(s) and may result in sub-optimal conclusions.
- Monolingual clinicians may have difficulty evaluating the speech of bilingual clients.
- Clinicians must be able to make valid and reliable judgments concerning stuttering in the familiar language versus the less familiar or dominant language.
Emotional Influences and Cultural Factors
- Cultural expectations around native language use can positively or negatively impact fluent speech production.
- Some parents and communities can pressure children to maintain native proficiency. This pressure, or the lack thereof, can negatively affect fluency.
- Standardized assessment measures might not fully account for the complexities that may arise amongst bilingual communities. Non-standardized approaches are advised, especially when exploring cultural impacts or expectations towards speech.
Treatment Approaches
- Bilingual treatment approaches should consider the same factors as monolingual treatment approaches but acknowledge and respect the multifaceted nature of the case.
- Assessment should guide treatment goals and practical execution.
- There are studies demonstrating the positive generalization of treatment, particularly those involving diaphragm breathing and restructuring interventions.
- Successful bilingual treatments can produce improvements across multiple languages (e.g., multilingual treatments for stuttering).
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