Carbohydrates: A Detailed Overview

1\. Introduction to Carbohydrates Carbohydrates include sugars, starches, and fibers found in fruits, grains, vegetables, and milk products. They are the body's main source of energy. Chemically, carbohydrates consist mainly of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They are polyhydroxy aldehydes...

1\. Introduction to Carbohydrates Carbohydrates include sugars, starches, and fibers found in fruits, grains, vegetables, and milk products. They are the body's main source of energy. Chemically, carbohydrates consist mainly of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They are polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones or compounds that yield these derivatives upon hydrolysis. Formed in plants by photosynthesis from carbon dioxide and water in the presence of sunlight. Examples include cane sugar, glucose, and starch. General molecular formula: . 2\. Function of Carbohydrates Used for energy storage and production (starch in plants, glycogen in animals). Glucose is essential for the nervous tissue and red blood cells. Ribose and deoxyribose sugars are part of RNA and DNA structures. Serve as structural elements (e.g., cellulose in plant cell walls, chitin in arthropod exoskeletons). 3\. Classification of Carbohydrates Monosaccharides: Simplest form of carbohydrates, polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones. Example of aldose: Glucose Example of ketose: Fructose Disaccharides: Formed by two monosaccharides linked by glycosidic bond. Classified as reducing or non-reducing sugars. Oligosaccharides: Composed of 3-10 monosaccharides joined by glycosidic bonds. Occur as glycoconjugates (e.g., glycoproteins, glycolipids). Polysaccharides: Composed of more than 10 monosaccharides. Serve as storage molecules (e.g., glycogen, starch) and provide structural support (e.g., cellulose). Classified as homopolysaccharides or heteropolysaccharides. 4\. Reducing and Non-reducing Sugars Classification based on their ability to act as reducing agents. 5\. Industrial Applications of Carbohydrates Food and Beverage: Used as sweeteners, thickeners, and stabilizers. Pharmaceuticals: Act as excipients to improve drug stability and bioavailability. Cosmetics: Provide hydration in products like moisturizers and shampoos. Biotechnology: Used in biodegradable plastics and biofuels. Research: Serve as tools in immunology, virology, and cellular biology. 6\. Cellulose-Based Water Filters Made from cellulose, a natural polymer from plant cell walls. Biodegradable, cost-effective, and renewable. Properties include high porosity, good mechanical strength, and chemical resistance. 7\. Construction of Cellulose-Based Water Filters Steps include cellulose material selection, preparation, layer formation, chemical treatment, and assembly. Commonly use cellulose acetate due to its favorable properties. 8\. Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) as Bioplastics Biodegradable and produced by microorganisms. Made from renewable resources like sugar and cornstarch. Used in packaging, medical devices, textiles, and automotive parts. 9\. Polylactic Acid (PLA) as Bioplastics Made from natural resources like corn starch. Biodegradable under industrial composting conditions. Used in packaging, 3D printing, and various engineering applications. 10\. Engineering Applications of PHA and PLA Bioplastics Used in automotive, electronic devices, aerospace, sporting goods, and medical equipment. Emphasis on biodegradability and suitability for sustainable solutions. 11\. Limitations of Cellulose-Based Water Filters Low resistance to high temperatures. Limited filtration efficiency for heavy metals. Potential clogging and difficulty in sterilization.