BAPS-11 Chapter 4 - 11 Reviewer in Fundamentals of Political Science PDF

CHAPTER 4 We may therefore approve of others while rulers and the governed that would support those in Democracy, Authoritarianism, and disapprove of some governments but in power as long as the g...

CHAPTER 4 We may therefore approve of others while rulers and the governed that would support those in Democracy, Authoritarianism, and disapprove of some governments but in power as long as the government served in their Totalitarianism relating to real politics we have but to interest. As Thomas Jefferson once said that the recognize or acknowledge who keeps or best government is the government that governs the Government in Democracy controls the political power of a state. least. Generally, in the United States, government refers to voting for one of at ❖ Three Important Agencies of least two parties which constitutes the Government DEMOCRACY political power of the state under a 1) Parliament/Assembly - carries ➔ Evolved from the Ancient times of structured and functional democracy. the functions to make or amend Aristotle There are many different forms of laws ➔ It is believed that democracy, as a power democracy but the special feature of 2) Executive/Cabinet - duty to comes not from the barrel of a gun, but democracy is the existence of popular enforce and administer laws that from the people. elections where people as the sovereign are legislated by the law-making ➔ Derived from the Greek word demos (the entity of a state choose their leaders either organ in a state people) and kratein (to rule) directly or indirectly. 3) Judiciary - interprets or French word democratie as well ➔ Moreover, the result of an adjudicates the law as the late Latin democratia election can truly mean that, on ➔ exists the rule by the people indirectly the basis of voting, a government Government in broad definition may refer to the through chosen representatives. can be replaced by another one, aggregate of institutions to which has been entrusted ➔ In a democratic society, the grant of a consisting of different people with the realization of the functions of the state. universal right of suffrage, civil liberties from all walks of life and from Internally, it shall be the duty of the government to and freedom, among other manifestations all distinctions available. protect and promote the welfare of the people are living institutional mechanisms that residing in a state and to make sure the maintenance mobilize people's participation in the Nevertheless, there are also governments of order is observed among the people and whole gamut of political processes. under totalitarian or despotic leaders. institutions of power. Externally, the government has ➔ Between 461 and 322 BC, Athens was the Monarchies still exist today commanding the top responsibility of protecting the territorial pioneering city-state of ancient Greece, absolute powers at least in the theoretical integrity of the state against foreign aggression and and also the Great Aristotle characterized framework. Saudi Arabia for example still the obligation to conduct its affairs as a member of early democracy in his thesis, The Polis thrives nowadays under the leadership of a the Family of Nations. (The Politics Book VI), “as each to rule monarch who secures political advice from and be ruled in turn”. his elite and partisan groups to effectively John Locke had viewed government, so do other ➔ Ekklesia, people’s assembly in Athens, manage the affairs of the state. political theorists, as a device to protect the rights was a potent symbol provided the There are also dictatorships in which an and property of the people. In Two Treatises of Civil archetype of direct democracy, where any individual or small group controls the Government, Locke had the occasion to say in this citizen of qualified age may attend government without much reference to wise: “The great and chief end of men uniting... assembly sessions, but that assembly was anyone else. under government is the preservation of their rather limited in the sense that However, all are governments be it under property” and so their natural rights. To Locke, participation was remote. monarchy, democracy or totalitarian rule. government represented a consensus between the  Athenian democracy - there the people that everyone is equally able to stand guard as the fourth branch of were executive councils, and participate in government, to compete government.” peoples' court (juries) aside from freely for public office, and all voices are 5) People Consultation - leaders should the assembly. considered equally loud. People regardless always conduct public hearings, fora and Democracy was meant to of any distinction enjoy political rights consultations among cross sections of the develop and enhance the under the principle of 'one person one society and be responsive to their needs peoples' capabilities vis-à-vis the vote'. and demands. Opinions held by the public city-state. In fact, it was the 2) Popular Representation - people choose are such potent instruments of public Athenians who coined the word their representatives through elections in officials' accountability. citizens-as opposed to subjects. Parliament/Assembly to serve and protect ➔ Since the 1970s the number of democratic their interests. A representative democracy Traditional ARISTOTELIAN Type of societies had doubled while totalitarian is a limited and indirect form of Government regimes gradually collapsed. democracy based on the selection of those The Great Aristotle had the credits of classifying Publication of the ever-famous who will govern on behalf of the people. systems of government now regarded as traditional George Orwell all the more 3) Majority Rule - Democracy is always the systems on their account. brought enough enlightenment to rule of the people or the rule by the authoritarian citizens. majority. The greatest good for the greatest ★ He portrayed a life number of citizens should generally be the under a typical policy of the government to reckon with totalitarian regime. (i.e., Athenian democracy). But while ★ He revealed how the majority rules, the government also government spy on the protects the interests and the rights of the people, peep into their least or the minority in all of its homes, and denies undertakings. Majority rule should not ★ Monarchy is the rule of one. individuals basic prejudice the minorities; if so, the rule of a form of government that freedoms and rights. majority then becomes the 'tyranny of bestows political power and ★ Private lives were majority'. authority in a king or equivalent under surveillance and 4) Freedom of Mass Media - the extent of regal sovereign. more. democratic practice in a country may be is either absolute or limited and ★ Orwell's depiction of seen on how free its press is. They keep succession to the office is either totalitarian society was the people politically aware, raise public hereditary or elective. in sharp contrast with awareness, and report opinions of the ➔ Monarchy is absolute that of Athenian people to keep leaders and politicians when the exercise of democracy. responsive to their clamors and power is uncontrolled sympathies. The presence of press freedom by law that the king Features of Democracy reveals the abuses and curtails the governs according to 1) Political Equality - advocates the notion injustices of the government. As one his will. Absolute that political power is equally distributed author writes, “press or the mass media monarchy was as widely and as evenly as possible among prevalent during the  oriental eras of Japan's combination of any two or more only the rich derive benefits or emperorships of 1880s of these. advantages, the government is and by various ★ Aristocracy is a government ruled by a oligarchy. It is from this context revolutions of the 17 to few. that President Marcos classified 19 century. is defined as “a form of Philippine society before Martial ➔ Monarchy is limited government in which political Law as oligarchy. He said “xxx when the king power is exercised by a ours tend to be an oligarchic exercised political relatively small and especially society. This simply means that authority in qualified class.” the economic gap between the accordance with Smith and Zurcher: rich and the poor provides the established laws, such Aristocracy is sometimes wealthy few the opportunity to as the German and “government by the best” since exercise undue Influence on Austro-Hungarian access to the ruling class is based political authority. When I speak government before not merely on birth and wealth of oligarchy I refer to the few 1918, whereby each but also on physical, intellectual who would promote their selfish emperor was flanked and moral qualities. interest through Indirect or by an elected Donato (2002): added that irresponsible exercise of public Parliament which Plato's ideal state in his book, and private power xxx.” exercised the powers The Republik is the idealization ★ Democracy is basically the rule of many. of law making while of this government by the best. Professor Dahl: “A political the emperor retained ★ Oligarchy is defined “as a government system in which the opportunity his executive power. whereby authority is vested upon few to participate in decisions is ★ Tyranny is the pervert of monarchy, a individuals or families.” widely shared among all adult one-man rule, that is unlimited by law or This small coterie of individuals citizens.” any given social custom or tradition. includes those who, because of Pure: when the people directly became apparent under the rule economic or other power, governed themselves of absolute kings of Europe and influence government policies Indirect: when people governed dictatorial emperors of Asia for their own benefits even themselves through elected during the earlier history though they lack formal representatives in governmen wherein they ruled absolutely authority. These few individuals ★ Mobocracy, on the other hand, is the unrestrained and engaged their are filthy rich and influential. pervert or the extreme contrast of people in wars for imperialisms Donato (2002) argued: “It is democracy because mobocracy resembles and colonialisms. difficult to cite an example of tyranny of the majority since the mob A tyrant usually acquired his oligarchy because in every case (people) governs for their own good by position in either way: by means those who govern under it would ignoring the minority. of appointment, inheritance; or of course argue that their regime by means of violence, force, is for the good of all the people. In Aristotle’s Understanding: coercion or fraud; and/or a But where under any particular ❖ Tyranny, Oligarchy and Mobocracy were form of rulership it appears that all perverted leaderships which seek to  serve only the interests of the rulers at the The Greeks in ancient times considered ➔ In modern democracy, however, expense of others. election as an instrument of aristocracy - it this method often fails. ❖ Governments ruled by a monarch, a group is a means of reflecting qualified people Population is too big, issues are of aristocrats and the people indirectly, for specific tasks of governance. so varied, and people's interests were rather better for leaders in these in politics is never sustained. categories as they governed in the interests Modern democracy is anchored on ➔ Instead, representative of all. liberalism in which the role of the state is government (modern ❖ Aristotle believed tyranny to be the worst regulated by its basic laws or constitutions. democracy) limits the popular of all forms of government as it considered ➔ A form of rule is that voice to “determining who the people the object of slavery. decision-making is the governs and allows these ❖ He also criticized that aristocracy and responsibility of governments politicians to decide what monarchy were impartial since they were rather than the governed and “in policies should be followed.” “based on a God-like willingness to place which the public sphere is the good of the community before the limited by protecting the rights According to Hold (1996), the core feature rulers' own interests.” of citizens in general and of of liberal democracy is limited ❖ Polity (rule by the many in the interests of property owners in particular.” government; the goal is to secure all) was accepted as the most practicable ➔ Haque (2001) in adopting from individual freedom-including freedom of constitutions. Schumpeter in 1943 stressed: from unwarranted demands by government ❖ Aristotle criticized popular rule on the representative democracy is itself. Limited government is protective; grounds that the masses would resent the merely a way of deciding who seeking to defend both the population from wealth of the few, and to easily fall under shall decide. “The deciding of its rulers and minorities from a tyrannical the sway of a demagogue. issues by the electorate (is made) majority. ❖ He therefore advocated a ‘mixed’ secondary to the election of the constitution that combined elements of men who are to do the deciding. Basis of Government both democracy and aristocracy, and left To put it differently, we now take Classification of Government Based on Authority the government in the hands of the middle the view that the role of the class: those who were neither rich nor people is to produce a 1) Based on One-Man Rule poor. government... And we define the a. Monarchy - it is believed that a Monarch democratic method as that or a King or a Queen ruled the people, and Traditional and Modern Democracy institutional agreement for the power to lead and govern came from arriving at political decisions in the Divine, making him directly Traditional is the democracy of Athens which individuals acquire the accountable to one whose power that he where people direct themselves under the power to decide for the people's keeps. Also, during the medieval period, classical principle of self-government. vote.” high priests invoked Divine intervention in Modern democracy from the 19th century justifying their assumption over the is chiefly characterized as representative In direct traditional democracy society governed. (e.g., Meji, the Emperor of rather than direct. governed itself, and open deliberations or Japan) discussions provide solutions to problems. b. Nazism - a ruler believed that his superior intelligence and might made him solely  responsible to govern the people for a the state, the president, does not consonance with the Organic Law. Governments cause of advancing his name and glory. inherit the office but is elected (Sison, 2001) are classified according to the Power then became the basis of morality. by those citizens who are following: Typified in World War II (WWII) by Adolf qualified to vote. Hitler of Germany. ➔ The United States is a republic 1) As to the extent of AUTHORITY c. Communism - a ruler believed that the according to this definition. The a. Central Government - national ownership of all the properties of the US Supreme Court has government exercises control and authority ruled/governed belong to the community expressed the American concept throughout the territory of the State. The as a whole. He suppresses individual of a republic as follows: “The agency responsible for providing for efforts and advocates the political system distinguishing feature of the political subdivisions of the State. of communal ownership, with the people republican form of government b. Local Government - are political entities sharing in the work and the products of the is the right of the people to or subdivisions created by the central works. Exemplified by the former USSR choose its own officers.” This government as a portion of a state which until 1990. makes the republic synonymous are directly responsible from the national 2) Government by the Few with democracy, which is the government in exercising their powers and a. Aristocracy - characterized by the rule of kind of government the US has. functions. nobility, elite, or privileged upper class. A ➔ Technically, the United States 2) As to ACCOUNTABILITY government body composed of the best has representative democracy a. Autocracy - if the ruler is not responsible men in the state. An example is Rome in like in the Philippines, a form of to the people as a whole but subject only to ancient times. government in which the people himself or to his group. This may be b. Oligarchy - the power is vested in the make most governmental established either by tradition or ideology. people or in a dominant class or clique. An decisions not directly but b. Democracy - leaders are directly example is the crony system of Marcos of through elected representatives, accountable to the people and are the Philippines. rather than a pure democracy, a periodically elected to remain in power. 3) Government by the Many political system under which all (paulit-ulit direct and indirect democracy) Democracy citizens vote directly on every a. Direct Democracy - pure piece of legislation. Pure democracy where people or the democracy is possible only in mob directly run and govern very small communities. themselves. b. Representative Democracy - Contemporary Classifications responsible democracy wherein Government is the term generally used to describe the people choose their the formal institutions through which a land and its 3) As to the EXTENT OF POWERS representatives to govern them in people are ruled. a. Federal - there is a division of powers and public affairs. functions between the federal government Republican and Democratic The government is an organization of political ends and the local government units. Each Government that exercises the authority of the functions of the government is supreme within its assigned ➔ A republic is a form of state. As an instrumentality, it can only pursue powers, and no encroachment is permitted government in which the head of functions delegated thereof by the state in on the powers of one over the other.  (e.g., United States) promoting political devolution and decentralization choose their own state governments headed by in their institutional system. veritable Prime Ministers. Importantly, these politicians wield genuine political power. They are Federalism is a political system where responsible for all affairs pertaining to culture, sovereignty is shared between the State internal security, the media, local government and Government and the Federal Government, regional taxation. In addition, the Lander (state which is the national/central government. government) has a significant say in national powers of the government are dispersed affairs." between the National Federal Government and the State Governments. Federalism is the principle of sharing sovereignty Each state government is separate, distinct between central and state (provincial) governments. and supreme within its own territorial Generally, there are three categories of governmental boundaries and jurisdiction but each state powers in federal structure: exclusive, broad, and owes loyalty and allegiance to the Central concurrent power. or Federal Government. a) Exclusive - is being exercised solely or The purpose of the Federal Government is entirely by one level of government, to promote unity among states and grant usually the federal government like the b. Unitary - exists when all powers are autonomy among them, while the State functions of foreign service, national vested in a central government. Local Government shall guarantee the defense, and commerce. In Canada, its governments are administrative creatures preservation of autonomy among states. provinces have exclusive jurisdiction over of the state and are directly responsible to education. the national government. b) Broad - are inherently exercised and (e.g., Philippines) Federalism in US properly possessed by the state In the United States, which is being typified as the government. Features of Federal and Unitary Government best example of federalism, the different states are c) Concurrent - are those exercised by both enjoying a certain but greater degree of autonomy, the federal government and the state History: One notable declaration in the German having their own state Executive in the person of the governments like eminent domain or Constitution (German Basic Law) is the principle of Governor, with their own Judicial and Legislative taxation of corporate and personal income. Federalism, which is exclusive and construed as one system. But they still must bend and prostrate their In Canada for instance both the national of the few elements that cannot be altered, either in own state law to the most superior power and and provincial governments can pass laws form or in substance, in their fundamental law. authority of the Federal Government as conferred dealing with agriculture. Germans often refer to their country as the Federal upon it by the federal Constitution of the United Republic (Bundesrepublik). This only shows how States of America. In a federal structure, the National important the principle has become for them in Government is restricted from becoming Federalism in Germany too dominant, powerful and political. Meinard and Raichle (2002), they stressed that the Under the Instant Federal Type, the 16 federal states called Lander in Germany enjoy Central Government shall only be given substantial authority. The citizens of the states do not the powers and functions which are only elect their own state parliaments, who then general or federal in scope like foreign  service, international trade and commerce, b. Parliamentary - the Executive and the iii. Government of paramount force - A national security, coinage of money, and Legislature are fused or merged. In the government is being established and defense, among others. system, there is the dominance by the maintained by military forces which ➔ State Governments would Legislature and the Executive is merely a invaded and occupied a territory of the become more empowered to creature of the Parliament. enemy in the course of war. carry on their local or regional b. Government de jure - existing affairs thereby enabling them to The 1987 Constitution of the Philippines government has a rightful title but no meet their concerns and needs established a “democratic and republican” state (Art. actual power or control either, because the more effectively and efficiently II, Sec. 1). Republicanism is a democratic right has been withdrawn from it or from the regional levels, and government of the people, by the people and for the because the same has not yet actually producing funds for their own people. entered into the exercise of governance. development and growth ➔ Republicanism is a representative 6) Other Classifications of Modern Day concerns. government and a responsible government. Government ➔ The 1935 and 1987 Constitutions provided a. Established (consolidated) Democracy - Unitary Government for the presidential framework: characterized by representative democracy In unitary states, there are three methods of Republican Government under and limited government operating through distributing or delegating powers away from the Presidential System law that provides an acceptable framework central government: deconcentration, ➔ the Constitution may expressly authorize for the people. decentralization, and devolution. the delegation of power in certain cases b. New Democracy - characterized with a. Deconcentration - administrative under specific conditions as in Art. VI, representative institutions but still the delegation of powers from the national Sec. 28 (2). influences of pre-democratic regimes are agencies to field or regional units. still felt. Law, toleration of opposition, b. Decentralization - transfer of political 5) As to LEGITIMACY media freedom, individual rights and a powers and responsibilities from the a. Government de facto - existing market economy are not fully entrenched. national government to subnational or government actually exercises powers and c. Authoritarian Rule - Rulers stand above local levels. In the Philippines, local units control but without the legal title to the law and are free from effective popular administer social welfare and development execute such functions. accountability. Examples are military services. i. De facto Proper - A government that governments, ruling monarchies in the c. Devolution - exists when the central gets possession and control of, or usurps, Middle East and post- communist regimes government grants some decision- making by force or by the voice of the majority, in Central Asia. powers or autonomy to lower level tiers of the rightful legal government and government. maintains itself against the will of the Goals and Functions of Government latter. 1. Political Interest - refers to its existential 4) As to the GOVERNMENT SYSTEM ii. Independent Government - A being by focusing on wellness of its a. Presidential - based on the principle of government which is established by the people, on the integrity of its territory, on separation of powers among the Executive, inhabitants of the State who rise above in the capability of the government to secure the Legislature and the Judiciary. The rebellion and insurrection against the obedience from the people, and on the President is directly elected by the people parent state (75 Phil. 113). capability of the state to relate effectively (infra). with other states.  2. Economic Interest - is factored on the regime of truth, justice, freedom, love, ❖ An authoritarian autocracy is one which capability of the government to provide the equality and peace…” The presence of the the society is ruled by a dictator that bans essentials of lives and stability from its Bill of Rights in its Constitution all activities which threaten his power but limited resources resulting from man-made guarantees the protection of individual and he is generally indifferent to people's capabilities and natural abundance. This civil liberties. courses of action as long as they don't pose therefore involves the basic needs of man 3. Enabling Justice for All a threat to his rule. in order to keep body and soul together. 4. Maintaining Internal Peace and ❖ A totalitarian autocracy is one that wants 3. Socio-Cultural Interest - includes the External Order to control all aspects of an individual's life. preservation and promotion of one's ❖ Put simply, authoritarian wants obedience, culture, the arts and the finer things in life the totalitarian wants worship. or attaining national arms of powers and AUTHORITARIANISM prestige. Sociocultural interests include the is believed to be the dictatorship of the Traditional Authoritarian Rule family, values, religion, tradition and right-the rich class. There are in classical term various authoritarian education. defined as the concentration of political leadership, among which are: absolutism, despotism, power in one man or a small group of dictatorship and tyranny. 1. Constituent Function - is by nature persons which emphasizes obedience of compulsory because it is constitutive of the people to their rulers and an absolute 1) Absolutism is the theory of absolute government, every bonds of the society. power of rulers over their subjects. which is commonly associated with an absolute 2. Ministrant Function - government can monarchy. undertake any function to advance the Authoritarianism is under a government which may 2) Despotism - the term connotes absolute and even welfare of the common people including be headed by the following: arbitrary rule. (master-slave shit) the interest of the society as well. 1. A leader from a family. The leader or the 3) Dictatorship - the term bears a similar meaning to 3. ‘Parens Patriae’ Doctrine - government head of the state in an authoritarian autocracy, a single ruler not beholden to the rule. It is functions as an entity to serve and protect government came from a linear family also used as an antonym to democracy. the rights of the people in its territory (35 member based on hereditary tradition and 4) Tyranny - the term refers more to the form of rule SCRA 738). custom. than to the manner of its acquisition. Today, tyranny 2. A leader from a social class. A leader or implies a coercive and unlimited dictatorship. head of state, assisted by nobility or from an elite party where top bureaucrats hold Characteristics of Authoritarian Monarchy power. A King or Queen then assumes the Absolute monarchy, the leader may rule with the aid of noble men. directly exercise all governmental powers Specific Tasks of Government 3. A leader from a strong party. A leader or or he may delegate some of these powers. 1. Promoting the General Welfare head of state or government assumed Limited monarchy may assume some 2. Ensuring Individual Freedoms - For power out of national distress resulting governmental powers sanctioned by the example, the Constitution of the from political chaos and instability. constitution, but above all acts as the Philippines declares in the Preamble the Usually a military leader takes over the ministerial head of the state as center of purpose of the fundamental law is to seat of power and leads in authoritarian ceremony, magnet of loyalty, and the “secure the blessings of independence and rule by means of force or coup d'etat. symbol of national unity. democracy under the rule of law and a Absolute authoritarianism therefore may be defined Authoritarianism is a system of government in government and determines what government policy as the practice of government from above and the which a small group with minimum popular input will be. Totalitarian communist states, for example, exercise of authority is carried out regardless of the exercises power. Unlike totalitarianism, authoritarian are the instrument for carrying out the policies of the consent of the government. Below are some governments generally do not attempt to control all Communist Party. Both facism and totalitarian characteristics of limited monarchy. aspects of human endeavors. It views society as a communism demand that individuals, where there is a. A monarch glorifies tradition by hierarchical organization with a specific chain of any conflict, subordinate their own interests to those continuing leadership. There is no command under the leadership of one ruler or group. of the party and the State. ideology other than upholding the principles and values of the past. Characteristics of Totalitarianism A Controlled Press b. A monarch stands above the people. He is 1) Ideology is the official doctrine, which all citizens Propaganda is the product of the State controlling the usually revered and his portrait painted or are expected to obey. press and structuring the flow of information to the mounted on common places. He is the 2) A totalitarian regime is organized in hierarchy people in order to make the State look good. ceremonial head of state and the national headed by a strong, powerful, and influential leader Totalitarian autocracies often employ an elaborate symbol. who is totally identified with his people; propaganda machine designed to secure mass c. A monarch does not employ propaganda or 3) The party from which the leader of the totalitarian support through intellectual conformity. If a leader is terror techniques to compel obedience regime came is the ruling elite groups, the followers to maintain control without resorting to elections she from the people or just to maintain his are in fact expected to show fanaticism, loyalty and or he often finds it necessary to control the press and rule. His subjects voluntarily acquiesce out dedication to the ruler; the other media groups to ensure popular support for of tradition and respect. 4) Totalitarian regimes employ the deliberate use of the regime. The people are denied the privilege of d. A monarch may have little control over his terror to control the lives of the people; violence and hearing any other side of the issue. For these subject aside from extraordinary obedience brutality are sometimes magnified and glorified as a reasons, autocracies often have strong public or he may lack the means of shaping the means in attaining an end. As Hitler once dictated, support, but without a free press and freedom of people's minds and thoughts unlike in "whatever goal man has reached is due to his expression for individuals, it is difficult to say totalitarian or despotic regimes. originality plus his brutality... force is the first law, whether that support would exist if people were and only force rules"; and offered a wide range of choices. 5) Totalitarian leaders assumed centralized control of all communications and propagation over their TOTALITARIANISM subjects. Technology is used against human rights ➔ defined essentially as a system of and freedoms and property would emanate only from government in which one party holds all the center. political, military, economic and judicial power. Loyalty to Party ➔ This party attempts to restructure society, Totalitarian autocracies demand complete loyalty to determine the values of society, and to and obedience to the party and the State. Fascist interfere in the personal lives of individual theory glorifies and exalts the State. Some form of citizens to control and direct their choices, communism exalts the social revolution and requires restrain their freedom and to monitor their of the individual complete dedication to the actions. objectives of the Communist Party. But under both systems, the political party has direct control of the FUNDAMENTALS OF POLITICAL SCIENCE claiming a monopoly of truth that rejects ★ Classical Liberalism - Liberals advocate CHAPTER V the notion to allow clashing ideas & atomism, a belief that society is made up Political and State Ideology opposing beliefs. of a set of largely self-sufficient individuals who owe little or nothing to POLITICAL & STATE IDEOLOGY : GOALS OF IDEOLOGY : one another. Ideology is a good society & the chief ★ Political weapon to outdo or smash ★ Modern Liberalism - Contemporary means of constructing such a society. opposing creeds or political beliefs. liberalism postulates a liberal participation A political doctrine, coherent set of ideas ★ Belief system to support, oppose or justify of the state over the economic affairs of that provide a basis for organized political existing political, social or economic the people. It allows interventionism by action intended to preserve, modify or scenarios. the government. overthrow existing systems of power ★ Philosophy to rationalize for current or relationships future political & social arrangements. ❖ Conservatism advocated by Edmund ★ It links political theory with practice. Burke, the father of Anglo-American NATURE OF IDEOLOGY : conservative tradition. Of a stance “change Ideologists pursue plans for action with CLASSIFICATION OF IDEOLOGY : in order to conserve”. less abstract ideas. ❖ Liberalism is a political and social It is a blueprint to improve society. philosophy that promotes individual rights, Characteristics of Conservatism : Contemporary governments are shaped & civil liberties, democracy, and free a. Tradition : Anchored on preservation of influenced by ideologies. enterprise. the hallowed tradition, reliance in Ideologies are not fixed or closed thoughts, institutions and respect for acceptable they are just solid ideas for organized Characteristics of liberalism : norms/culture. The tradition they kept had political action.o a. Freedom emanates from the belief that in no doubt ushered in “security and man by nature is free & has the desire to stability giving individuals a sense of PERSPECTIVES OF IDEOLOGY : do things that would make him happy. social and historical belonging”. ★ Destuit De Tracey- (1754-1835) - French b. Equality has all men born equal, at least in b. Authority : Conservatives pursued that philosopher & father of ideology argued their moral sense. “authority emanates from the hierarchy that it could be a recourse to decipher the c. Individualism each man is unique unto providing leadership, guidance and support origin of conscious thoughts & ideas. himself that man is essentially supreme for those who lack knowledge, experience ★ Karl Marx - Proposed the ideology of the over & above any collective body. and education that cannot be acquired ruling class, the doctrine that perpetuates a d. Reason has that man is a rational being through effort or self-advancement.” class system where exploitation became endowed with intellect & reason. c. Pragmatism : Conservatives thought on necessarily a political & economic order. e. Consent : Any human relationship should practical circumstances and goals; while it ★ The Liberals & conservatives view an be founded on trust, willingness & distrusts abstract ideas, conservatives alternative use of the ideology as a term. consent. premium on collective experience, man’s ★ To absolute regimes, ideology is a f. Toleration : People should allow others to history, and life’s practicality. medium of social control to assure think, act & speak in ways of which they d. Organicism : Conservatives view society obedience of the people. oppose or differ. as a living organism, a biological entity ★ To Fascism, Nazism & Communism, Kinds of Liberalism : capable to grow and to be nurtured. ideology is a drastic system of ideas Society is thus seen as a lebensraum (state  of living organism) with natural necessity b. Social Class : A small of those who own OTHER IDEOLOGICAL TRADITIONS : for survival and in the process acquires the means of production & a large class of ❖ Facism is a political ideology with strong social stability. those who work for the small class. centralized powers, permitting no e. Human Imperfection : Conservatives c. Common Ownership : Collectivization or opposition or criticisms against the know that man is not perfect only because selective nationalization. constituted government, controlling all the man is free to whatever he pleases or d. Social Equality : An equality of outcome affairs of the nation, emphasizing an chooses. Therefore, human beings, free as not of opportunity. aggressive nationalism & they were, are limited, vulnerable and anti-communism. largely reliant and need to be secured in an Characteristics of Marxism : Examples : Italy's Mussolini & orderly, just and human community. a. Communism abolishes private property Germany’s Hitler. f. Property : Conservatives, unlike ownership to achieve classless society. communist advocates, don the concept that b. Proletariat Revolution where the working ❖ Anarchism calls for the abolition of human beings are rational individuals and class would show their resentment & government restraints toward total political require property ownership in the pursuit discontentment over the ruling class & social freedom. of happiness. through a revolution of class- g. Hierarchy consciousness. ❖ Feminism emerged in the 1840s courtesy c. Surplus Value shows how the proletariat of Australia redefining the roles of women Kinds of Conservatism : were exploited , how the value of labor in the society proclaiming gender equality. ★ Classical Conservatism - believes in became too immaterial for those who preserving the tradition of existing state of actually labored in passion. ❖ Environmentalism came with rapid affairs & institutions or keeping the status d. Class Struggle persists to correct the industrialization, urbanization & quo with very minimal change in all its division between the opposing classes on globalization to care & protect the structures & belief systems. the discrepancy from the fruit of labor. environment for future generations. ★ Modern Conservatism - allows a certain degree of change in the organization & ★ Social Democracy accepts capitalism for ❖ Religious Fundamentalism meaning institutions yet keeping the essence of its generating wealth it also, on the other base, is a thought in which certain beliefs belief system in high spirit. hand, manifests desire to redistribute are regarded as essential knowledge or wealth consistent with moral principle. truths that have infallible & overlapping ❖ Socialism was a response against the They work in compassion with a common authority regardless of their contents. industrial revolution (19th century) liberal commitment to freedom, Examples : Christian fundamentalism & adheres to ownership & control of capital, opportunities and equality under the Islamic fundamentalism. industry & land by the community as a guidance of a paternalistic state that cares whole (Karl Marx). and supports the needs of the society from cradle to grade, or simply put a state that Characteristics of Socialism : looks forward to the needs of its people a. Economics : Workers produce things but from womb to tomb. get paid only a fraction of the value of what they produce. THE FUTURE IDEOLOGY : An ideology could persist as a belief system should it adopt open & practical innovations to changing circumstances. Emerging issues & concerns gave growth to new philosophies like fundamentalism, feminism & ecologism. New ecological challenges emerged as communism fell like neofascism, breakaway nationalism & Islamic fundamentalism. The debate concludes that ideology is here to stay & that the evolution of ideology is a continuing search & unending process. POLITICAL SPECTRUM : FUNDAMENTALS OF POLITICAL SCIENCE THE POLITICAL PRINCIPLE OF articulate the interests of the group for CHAPTER VI REPRESENTATION : being a part /member therein. Representation, Election and Suffrage A representative democracy is a limited FUNCTIONS OF ELECTIONS : & indirect form of democracy based on the 1. Election as a means of building a THE NATURE OF ELECTIONS : selection of will rule on behalf of the support base - Voters could either go in It is considered the heart process of people. It is “standing for, or acting on support or against a candidate. democratic politics where the citizens are behalf of, a larger body of people, 2. Election as a means of selecting leaders expected to participate. representation can involve trusteeship, and policies - Once the leaders deliver the Election is a competition for office based delegation or resemblance”. way they are expected, they have larger on a formal expression of preferences by a The application of democracy to the large chances to be reelected otherwise they population, combined to a collective nation-state has been made possible by the might suffer defeat as a way of checking decision from which candidates won. use of representation, resulting in indirect government officials’ accountability. Almost all nations of the world practice democracy. 3. Election as a means of recruiting leaders elections even though most of the world's - Recruitment of leaders & members to states are not democratic. They would like THEORIES OF REPRESENTATION : manage, control & administer government to appear as such. 1. Representation through Delegate Model affairs. Elections therefore are interesting aspects - This model supports the mechanism 4. Election as a means of educating voters - of political institutions. which ensures politicians act in a manner This period provides the citizenry a great consistent with the views & interests of the mass of information about political parties, COMPETITIVE ELECTIONS : people they represent. ideologies, candidates , policies etc. a. Bottom up theory stresses the extent to 2. Representation through Trustee Model 5. Election as a means of building which competitive elections render - A trustee is a person who has been legitimacy - Elections are a means to government accountable to the governed. elected for or on behalf of another property justify the system of rule. The last election decides who governs: the or affairs. Edmund Burke said that the thought of the next election influences how trust of representation is to serve one’s ELECTORAL SYSTEM : they do so. constituency. An electoral system refers to a set of rules b. Top down approach views competitive 3. Representation through Mandate Model that governs the conduct of elections in a elections as a device for expressing the - This model propounds the idea that in state. power of the elite over the population as winning elections, a party gains a popular suggested by Ginsberg that elections mandate that authorizes it to carry out SUFFRAGE : WHY DO PEOPLE VOTE? incorporate potential dissenters into the whatever policies it outlined during the To enfranchise themselves in the selection political system, reduce popular election campaign. of leaders & policy decision makers who participation to a mere cross on a ballot & 4. Representation through Resemblance will run their governments & direct the encourage people to obey the state without Model - This model argues that the best future. limiting its autonom. representative of a group must come also The right to vote is a civic duty, a moral from the same group because the chosen responsibility for a citizen to defend , representative is in a better position to protect & determine his country’s affairs.  It is evident to note that not all those who ❖ Anthony Downs, “An economic theory develop & define his political are entitled to vote do vote. of democracy” - He concluded that people choice based on his current would vote if the returns outweigh the leanings or affiliations. costs, that is if the stakes seem important CLASSICAL THEORIES OF SUFFRAGE : enough the citizens will go to the trouble ★ Class Voting - Social class is a significant ★ Ethical Theory - views suffrage as a of voting. factor in voting behavior. Politicians would mechanism to develop the potentials of a always try to win the hearts of the poor human person as it extends one’s ★ Income and Education - The poor & masses believing that they are a great deal nationalistic obligation or duty. uneducated are least likely to vote. of the voting population. ★ Legal Theory - views suffrage as a Deprived of financial possessions , they ★ Religion - Philippine politicians would see privilege given by the state on qualified feel they had little “economic stake” in the the importance of being identified to larger citizens. election outcomes. religious groups for they can influence ★ Tribal Theory - views suffrage as an ★ Age and Gender - Young people are less their members’ political choices. essential attribute of membership in a politically involved than those who are ★ Urban and Regional Voting - People political organization. older. Men were more likely to vote than living in extreme regions of the state may ★ Natural Right Theory - views suffrage as women in almost every society. have differing preferences or opinions on an inherent right of the governed to choose ★ Race or Ethnicity - Minority groups an issue. Metro Manila is observed to their leaders. (Philippines) are not also active in political always go for the opposition. ★ Feudal Theory - views suffrage as participation like the blacks & Latinos in ★ Age Group - The youth are regarded as a determined by property ownership or the the US. potentially influential group in delivering right of taxpayers to choose leaders. ★ Area of Residence - Elite dwellers have support for or against a political candidate. comparatively higher electoral turnout ★ Gender Group - It is assumed that women CONTEMPORARY THEORIES OF VOTING : during elections than those in the rural are more traditional & conservative than ★ Party Identification - people tend to vote areas. men. as a manifestation of their party affiliation not by factors influenced by personalities, ELECTORAL PARTICIPATION : ELECTORAL PARTICIPATION : media or politics of the day. ❖ How do people vote (Roskins 1997) : Electoral systems in legislative ★ Sociological Model - the voting is based Long term Influence - Factors departments are classified as majoritarian on the preferences of a voter’s membership that influence the way a person systems or proportional systems. Large with a group or class. defines his preferences & voting parties typically win a higher proportion of ★ Rational Choice Model - voting is choices probably all throughout seats than votes which increases the considered a rational act when it is based his lifetime. chances of single-party government. on self-interest. Examples : In proportional representation systems, ★ Dominant Ideology Model - Individual socio-economic there is an equal or at least more equal choices are influenced by ideological category or political relationship between the percentage of manipulation & control. party affiliation. seats & and votes won, which increases the likelihood of controlling the government. CATEGORIES OF VOTERS : Short term Influence - Factors that may cause a person to THE ROLE OF MASS MEDIA IN ELECTIONS : Mass media is overwhelmingly recognized in democratic countries. Ads & television campaigns can dramatically result in name recall, bandwagon effect if not victory come election day. Photo opportunities, instead of traditional debate forums, avoid embarrassing probes by journalists. Most electoral campaigns are executed through a network of media coverage. Candidates should not be evaluated based on performance & track record not on popularity because of TV commercials. Electoral system & elections should be free, honest & credible in selecting good political leaders & changing those who fail their constituents  FUNDAMENTALS OF POLITICAL SCIENCE The development of the legislative assembly started in Europe. CHAPTER VII Traditionally exercised by kings or by people in small assemblies to Legislative Assemblies represent various estates- clergy, nobility & the town (commoner).’ ❖ GERMANY & BRITAIN : A. LEGISLATIVE POWER : ➔ In Germany (early folkmoots) & Britain In most democracies, legislature is the direct repository of peoples’ (witenagemot), these were composed of wise men representatives in the government. called by the king to advise him. In Britain, the A symbol of popular representation Parliament evolved. The foundation of liberal democratic politics. The legislature reflects the ➔ In the 13th & 14th century, the king consulted the sentiments of the people. It mobilizes popular consent for the system of Parliaments on the following issues: rule. a. Administration Used to denote the assembly, parliament, Congress, or legislature. b. Taxation The function of the legislature is to formulate laws that shall govern the c. War Plans society. ➔ The House of Lords was formed by the nobles & higher clergy. ➔ The House of Commons was formed by the knights & B. LEGISLATIVE POWER EXISTS WHEN THE FOLLOWING ARE lesser clergy with the burgesses. PRESENT : ❖ FRANCE : 1. When the bill is passed in the law. ➔ In France, the development of the Parliament was 2. When an existing law was replaced. slow. It was during the French revolution when the 3. When a law is amended in part. aggression destroyed all titles of nobility & privileges in the country. ❖ ENGLAND : C. LEGISLATIVE POWER IS VESTED THE FOLLOWING : ➔ In England, the parliamentary government was a result The Congress-bicameral in structure. of evolution in the long struggle for supremacy The People make laws through initiative & referendum between the King of England & the representatives of ★ INITIATIVE - It means the authority is reserved to the people the people. through direct participation of the electorate in law-making ➔ The gradual political gains & concessions by the processes either national or local level. cabinet forces of the nobility, of the landed estate & ★ REFERENDUM - It means the process in which Congress or a the representatives of the middle class against the local legislative body consults the people directly for their royalty developed into traditions which crystallized approval or rejection on any question of law passed. the middle class into political institutions & practices Parlez is a French word which means to speak in English. The legislative that formed the nucleus of the parliamentary is the talking & debating assembly of the government government that is today in England. ❖ EUROPE : D. HOW DID LEGISLATURE COME TO BE? : ➔ In Europe, assemblies were representative bodies long before they became legislatures with sovereign rights to pass laws.  ❖ UNITED STATES : ➔ In modern republics like the United States, Congress F. FUNCTIONS OF LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLIES : is given the right to legislate from the start. It ★ Legislation - is the primary responsibility of democratic legislatives. represents the law making organ of the state. ★ Deliberation - is essential because they are the talking assemblies of the E. BICAMERAL & UNICAMERAL STRUCTURE : government where floor debates become the fundamental activity among Every legislative assembly in the world has either unicameral or bicameral the members. set up of the lawmaking body except for Yugoslavia which experimented ★ Constituency work - is the reason why a representative gets reelected. with a 5-chamber assembly & South Africa (1984- 1994) experienced a They prioritize the needs & interests of the constituency. 3-chamber assembly. ★ Supervision & criticism of government - as they transform themselves ★ UNICAMERAL - A unicameral structure has 1 chamber of as investigative bodies in aid of legislation lawmakers. ★ BICAMERAL - A bicameral structure consists of lower chamber (House) & upper chamber (Senate). G. PROCEDURE IN THE PASSAGE OF A BILL INTO A LAW : ❖ PHILIPPINES : ❖ FIRST READING - A bill is read and it’s designated number and the title ➔ The Philippines debated whether to adopt a bicameral structure thereof and the name or names of the sponsor/s of a bill recognized. in the 1986 Constitutional Commission. Bicameral prevailed ❖ SECOND READING - At this stage, the bill is presented to the Population usually determines the appropriate legislative structure. Large concerned House the second time in its totality, together with the population means a large assembly. amendments, if any, recommended by the Committee. ❖ CHINA : ❖ FLOOR DEBATES - Floor debates in the concerned House shall ➔ China’s National People’s Congress has 3000 members. commence following the second reading of a proposed law. ❖ SOUTH PACIFIC OCEAN - During the deliberations, appropriate measures or amendments ➔ South Pacific Island of Tuvalu has 12 members (9000 may be presented. population). - Failure to withstand the intricate and fantastic debate by the In 2000, 112 of the world’s 178 parliaments (68%) had only 1 chamber. authors or sponsor would terminate the bill in its earnest. But The main factor predisposing to unicameral is small size at 24M, the when the debate becomes successful, the bill then shall pass to average population of unicameral states is barely half that of bicameral the next stage. states. ❖ PRINTING AND DISTRIBUTION - When the bill passed the floor ADVANTAGES OF BICAMERAL STRUCTURE : debates, the House concerned shall order the reproduction of copies in its 1. The Lower House is a liberal element of effective representative final form as amended; and democracy. A direct repository of the people. - It shall be distributed to its members 3 days before its passage 2. It is essential & advantageous to federal states with bigger except when the President certifies that the bill is “Urgent”. populations. ❖ THIRD READING - Upon the reading of a bill, no amendment to the 3. It ensures careful & thorough deliberation & consideration of proposed bill may be allowed or entered in the original form, as earlier any proposed legislation. modified and the vote thereon shall ensure without delay. 4. It prevents the undue concentration of political power in a single - The “Yes” and “No” votes are entered in the record of the body if unchecked which might become arbitrary & despotic. journal. As a matter of right, a member may abstain from voting. 5. It is a system based on direct popular election that reflects the ❖ TRANSMITTED TO THE OTHER HOUSE - Once approved in the will of the people: vox populi est vos Dei (the voice of the original House, the bill will be transmitted to the other House and when people is the voice of God). necessary, it shall pass again the same stages on three separate readings.  - A majority of the members present may adequately consider and date of the receipt thereof. Though he has the veto pass a bill. power, such will apply only to the particular item or ❖ SUBMISSION TO JOINT BICAMERAL COMMITTEE - In case the items to which he objects (See Article VI, Section other House rejects or enters its objection or amended version. These 27). issues are forwarded to a joint bicameral committee for possible compromise on the “disagreeing provisions” of the bill at hand. COMPONENTS PART OF LAW : - Usually, any differences here are appropriately settled as an act ★ TITLE - Refers to the subject matter of the law, or the Act carried by the of the legislative department. In fact, the Joint Bicameral legislative department, and the executive as well. Committee may produce an amendment to harmonize ★ PREAMBLE - Introduces the objectives for the enactment of the Act and conflicting interests of each House as long as the amendment is explains the general reasons for such legislation. genuine to the subject of the bill. ★ ENACTING CLAUSE - Refers to the collective and distinct will of both ❖ APPROVAL OF CONSOLIDATED BILL BY BOTH HOUSES - Houses to enact an act or a bill. The Enacting clause specifically states the Members of the Joint Bicameral Committee will submit the consolidated reason for the legislation of the act. bill, in its final form and the approval by both houses. ★ Body - Pertains to the total substance or content of the proposed Act. - The main author/sponsors of the bill will move for consideration ★ EFFECTIVITY CLAUSE - Indicates the time at which the law shall take of the bill as contained in the report of the Joint Committee. effect. Usually, a law will be enforced next following the 15- day - If no objection is made it means that the Congress has publication requirement in a newspaper of general circulation in the unanimously approved the same and the voting comes thereafter. Philippines or in the official Gazette not unless a date is fixed as to its ❖ SUBMISSION TO THE PRESIDENT : effectivity. - A bill which is finally approved by both Houses shall be printed with the signatures of both the Speaker and the Senate President affixed thereon, H. LIMITATION ON THE INVESTIGATIVE POWER (CONGRESS) : including those of the secretaries of both Houses. Inquiry shall be conducted only in aid of legislation. - Then, the bill shall be forwarded to the President for his approval. The constitutional right against self-incrimination shall not be violated. ❖ VETO POWER OF THE PRESIDENT : The right to counsel shall be respected to persons being investigated. Particularly, Each House shall publish the rules of procedure governing the - Every bill must be presented and approved by the President. investigation. - In case, the President disapproves the bill, he exercises veto Such congressional inquiry shall not serve a member’s personal power and returns it, with his objection, to the House where it aggrandizement. originated; In most democracies, members are assigned to various committees by - In case the House, after such deliberation, considered the bill as their respective party organization in the House. proposed a ⅔ vote may carry its power to override the veto. ❖ The strength of an assembly is determined by the following: ➔ Equally so, the bill shall be sent to the other House 1.) Extent of its constitutional mandate and if approved by 2/3 votes, the bill shall become a 2.) Independence from the political executives law even without the signature of the President. The 3.) Level of organizational support. President shall communicate his veto of any bill to the House where it came from within 30 days after the I. COMMITESS : The complexity of legislative works may be ease out only in aid of committee organization. They are formed in the House to cope with the capacious legislative workload. Committees work with larger influence when there is no dominant party in any legislative assembly worldwide, usually called ‘little legislators. Committee chairmen are powerful & defensive within their own spheres. Party dominated assemblies; however, committees exert influence as they are effectively sterilized by most members owing an overriding loyalty to the government of the day. The key to the influence of committees lies in their experience & expertise.  FUNDAMENTALS OF POLITICAL SCIENCE c. There is no overlapping of powers between executive & CHAPTER VIII legislature. Political Executives : Presidential vs. Parliamentary System d. The president assumes concurrent roles as head of state & government of the state. POLITICAL EXECUTIVES : e. Cabinet & ministries are appointees by the President who are The executive department is the most essential core of the government. accountable to the President. This is headed by a President (Presidential) & a Prime Minister (Parliamentary). ❖ GENERAL FEATURES OF PRESIDENTIAL SYSTEM : This department implements or administers a policy or a law. ★ SEPARATION OF POWERS : It directs the nation’s affairs, supervises how a policy is carried out, The 3 branches of government are by principle & operation mobilizes support for its goals, & provides crisis leadership. independent of each other & exclusively exercise powers ➔ In democracies, the powers of the political executive are limited assigned to them by the constitution. by a constitution to avoid possibility of dictatorship or While independent, they coordinate & cooperate with each other totalitarian rule. They are accountable to the people for their so that the interest of the people will be promoted. conduct. ❖ THE EXECUTIVE MAY FALL UNDER THREE ★ ABSENCE OF NOMINAL HEAD : CATEGORIES : The ceremonial head of the state is the head of state in name ★ Presidential only because his powers are ministerial & not genuine. ★ Parliamentary In the presidential system, the President is both head of state & ★ Semi-Presidential head of government, assisted by cabinet officers he appointed & serves at his pleasure. 1.) PRESIDENTIAL SYSTEM A form of government where the executive is directly elected by the ★ CHECKS AND BALANCES : people for a fixed term of office. This institutional system permits each branch of the government The executive is the head of the state & government. to check upon the other to prevent the possible abuses or The President is responsible to the electorate & can be removed only if he encroachment of one branch to another. becomes disqualified to continue his office or by impeachment. The US is an ideal example of a presidential system which the Philippine ★ CABINET MEMBERS ARE CHOSE OUTSIDE : model is patterned. The President chooses his cabinet members outside Congress The executive power is vested in an independently elected president who based on trust & confidence & are politically accountable to the is not accountable to the assembly. President. CHARACTERISTIC OF PRESIDENTIAL GOVERNMENT : 2.) PARLIAMENTARY SYSTEM : a. The executive & legislative are elected separately, vested with A form of government where the chief executive is elected from the constitutional powers. The president creates & appoints the Assembly with no fixed term of office. cabinet The executive (Prime Minister or Chancellor) is the head of the b. Both the President (Chief Executive) & Assembly (Legislative government. Department) enjoy fixed terms of office. He heads the Council of ministers that emerges from the Assembly.  The chief executive is responsible to the assembly & can be removed only The King/Queen is the titular head who assumed the ceremonial upon expression of a vote of no confidence by parliament. powers of the state. Countries in Europe are parliamentary He performs only ministerial powers as a symbol of national unity & people’s loyalty. The Prime Minister (Chancellor or Premier) is the real head of the government. He exercises the authority to decide public policies & programs of government. ★ CABINETS ARE DRAWN FROM THE PARLIAMENT : They are chosen from the members of the assembly which manifests the supremacy of the parliament, which can dissolve the e