ASUS Review: PSYC 100 Review Booklet PDF Fall 2021

ASUS Review: PSYC 100 Review Booklet 1 Week 1 Definitions: Why Science? Empirical methods – approaches to inquiry that are tied to actual measurement and observation Ethics – guidelines that offer researchers a template for making decisio...

ASUS Review: PSYC 100 Review Booklet 1 Week 1 Definitions: Why Science? Empirical methods – approaches to inquiry that are tied to actual measurement and observation Ethics – guidelines that offer researchers a template for making decisions that protect research participants from potential harm and that steer scientists away from conflicts of interest or other compromising situations Hypotheses – a logical idea that can be tested Systematic observation – the careful observation of the natural world with the aim of better understanding it. Observations provide the basic data that allow scientists to track, tally, or otherwise organize information about the world Theories – groups of closely related phenomena or observations Thinking like a Psychological Scientists Anecdotal evidence – a piece of evidence, usually drawn from personal experience, used to support a conclusion that may or may not be correct Causality – in research, the determination that one variable causes an effect Correlation – in statistics, the measure of relatedness of two or more variables Data – in research, information systematically collected for analysis and interpretation Deductive reasoning – a form of reasoning in which a given premise determines the interpretation of specific observations Distribution – in statistics, the relative frequency that a particular value occurs for each possible value of a given variables Empirical – concerned with observation and/or the ability to verify a claim Fact – objective information about the world Falsify – in science, the ability of a claim to be test and – possibly – refuted, a defining feature of science Generalize – in research, the degree to which one can extend conclusions drawn from the findings of a study to other groups or situations not included in the study Hypothesis – a tentative explanation that is subject to testing Induction – to draw general conclusions from specific observations Inductive reasoning – a form of reasoning in which a general conclusion from a set of observations, which leads to a general conclusion Levels of analysis – in science, there are complementary understandings and explanations of phenomena Null-hypothesis significance testing (NHST) – in statistics, a test created to determine the chances that an alternative hypothesis would produce a result as extreme as the one observed if the null hypothesis was true Objective – being free of personal bias Population – in research, all the people belonging to a particular group Probability – a measure of the degree of certainty of the occurrence of an event Probability values – in statistics, the established threshold for determining whether a given value occurs by chance Pseudoscience – beliefs or practices that are presented as being scientific, but which are not Representative – in research, the degree to which a sample is a typical example of the population from which it is drawn Sample – in research, people selected from a population to serve as an example of that population Scientific theory – an explanation for observed phenomena that is empirically well-supported, consistent, and fruitful (predictive) Type I error – in statistics, the error of rejecting the null hypothesis when it’s true Type II error – in statistics, the error of failing to reject the null hypothesis when it’s false  ASUS Review: PSYC 100 Review Booklet 2 Value – belief about the way things should be History of Psychology Behaviourism – the study of behaviour Cognitive psychology – the study of mental processes Consciousness – awareness of ourselves and our environment Empiricism – the belief that knowledge comes from experience Eugenics – the practice of selective breeding to promote desired traits Flashbulb memory – a highly detailed and vivid memory of an emotionally significant event Functionalism – a school of American psychology that focused on the utility of consciousness Gestalt psychology – an attempt to study the unity of experience Introspection – a method of focusing on internal processes Neural impulse – an electro-chemical signal that enables neurons to communicate Practitioner-Scholar Model – a model of training of professional psychologists that emphasizes clinical practice Psychophysics – study of the relationships between physical stimuli and the perception of those stimuli Realism – a point of view that emphasizes the importance of the sense in providing knowledge of the external world Scientists-Practitioner Model – a model of training of professional psychologists that emphasizes the development of both research and clinical skills Structuralism – a school of American psychology that sought to describe the elements of conscious experience Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon – the inability to pull a word from memory even though there is the sensation that that word is available WEEK 1: INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY Navigating Principles of Psychology Learning Objectives 1. Describe factors that impact adjustment to post-secondary education, and that predict success. 2. Understand that psychology is a broad science that integrates diverse approaches and methodologies that have their roots in other disciplines (e.g., Biology, Mathematics, Philosophy). 3. Learn the scope of mental health problems faced by University students (including those enrolled in Principles of Psychology) and how that might affect working with course content. 4. Define trigger warnings and describe the existing evidence for why they are not used in Principles of Psychology. 5. Understand and use (where appropriate) strategies to overcome the academic challenges that this course may present 6. Understand and use (where appropriate) strategies to overcome the emotional challenges that this course may present. Challenges in Post-Secondary Education Loneliness - due to separation from family/friends Financial stress - expenses may lead to debt  ASUS Review: PSYC 100 Review Booklet 3 Class format - large classes that are less impersonal and less structured (more distraction) Freedom - more independence in university (so more responsibility) Social opportunities - pressure from the choices of engaging in certain recreation activities and how to balance work life with social life Personal and emotional problems - key point in life for development Strategies for Success Scheduling your time Keeping focused and studying effectively Be prepared for potentially upsetting content by looking through the syllabus Considering coping strategies and mental hygiene Self-care Techniques such as deep breathing, progressive muscle relaxation, visualization (“happy place”), grounding (detach from overwhelming emotion through distraction) Why Science Learning Objectives 1. Describe how scientific research has changed the world. 2. Describe the key characteristics of the scientific approach. 3. Discuss a few of the benefits, as well as problems that have been created by science. 4. Describe several ways that psychological science has improved the world. 5. Describe a number of the ethical guidelines that psychologists follow. Science is the use of systematic observation to acquire knowledge o Observation leads to hypotheses we can test o Science is democratic and cumulative Psychology as a Science Francis Galton (cousin of Charles Darwin) studied ability to distinguish between colours o Also invented self-report questionnaire (used to study how people judge distance) o Also realized the nature vs nurture question could be studied through comparing the behaviour between identical and fraternal twins Psychological science helps with therapy studies o Showed CBT is helpful against depression and anxiety disorders, while other therapies are harmful Ethics Informed consent - people have free choice to participate Confidentiality - information should not be made public without permission Privacy - observations should not be made in private places without permission Benefits - researchers should weigh the benefits against the potential risks Deception - researchers must debrief after the study to educate participants Thinking Like a Psychological Scientist Learning Objectives 1. Compare and contrast conclusions based on scientific and everyday inductive reasoning.  ASUS Review: PSYC 100 Review Booklet 4 2. Understand why scientific conclusions and theories are trustworthy, even if they are not able to be proven. 3. Articulate what it means to think like a psychological scientist, considering qualities of good scientific explanations and theories. 4. Discuss science as a social activity, comparing and contrasting facts and values. Scientific vs Everyday Reasoning Induction: drawing general conclusions from specific observations o Used in both scientific and everyday reasoning Science can be distinguished from a pseudoscience because it can be falsified (Karl Popper) Problem with Freud’s theory to explain mental illness (believed that mental illness is often due to childhood “problems”, but this is too vague to be falsified) Basis of falsification: if science showed all possibilities that weren’t true, we would be left only with what is true Interpretation of Research Results Inductive reasoning: general conclusion is inferred from a set of observations o Based on probabilities o Science is better at addressing probabilities rather than proving something, so even data that isn’t falsifiable can be useful Deductive reasoning: general principles are applied to prove specific instances o More associated with proof Important to make sure the sample is representative of the general population o Differentiates between conclusions from personal anecdotes and those drawn from scientific observations o Anecdotal evidence is limited by quality and representativeness of observations and memory shortcomings  ASUS Review: PSYC 100 Review Booklet 5 Trusting Science Correlation: in statistics, the measure of relatedness of two or more variables Null-hypothesis significance testing (NHST) tests the probability that the observations would be the same if there were no relationship between the variables in the study o The two variables are not related in the null hypothesis o The two variables are related in the alternative hypothesis o Involves comparing what is expected to happen (probability) with what actually happens (observations) through looking at the distribution of data o Type I error: data shows a relationship that doesn’t exist o Type II error: data fails to show a relationship that exists o Probability values (p-values) set a threshold for errors and what data is significant o “Significant at p <.05 level” = if the same study were repeated 100 times, we should expect this result to occur – by chance – fewer than five times Scientific theory: an explanation for an observed phenomena that is empirically well- supported, consistent and fruitful/predictive as well as potentially falsified Thomas Kuhn argues there’s no such thing as objective theory/data; all science is influenced by values, experiences and opinions o So, science (especially social sciences like psychology) functions best when people of diverse backgrounds/values work together Levels of analysis state that a given phenomenon can be explained at different levels simultaneously - allow a variety of perspectives History of Psychology Learning Objectives 1. Describe the precursors to the establishment of the science of psychology. 2. Identify key individuals and events in the history of American psychology. 3. Describe the rise of professional psychology in America. 4. Develop a basic understanding of the processes of scientific development and change. 5. Recognize the role of women and people of color in the history of American psychology. Empiricism John Locke & Thomas Reid Claims that all knowledge comes from experience  ASUS Review: PSYC 100 Review Booklet 6 Physiology & Psychophysics Hermann von Helmholtz measured the speed of the neural impulse, explored physiology of hearing and vision o Showed that our senses can deceive us/don’t necessarily mirror the external world o There is a psychological reality and a physical reality, and the two aren’t identical Psychophysics: allows for the measuring of the relationship between physical stimuli and human perception Wilhelm Wundt established experimental psychology by promoting that psychology could be an experimental field (gave textbooks, classes, laboratories) Trained students on introspection (offer self-reports of their reactions to varying stimuli) to determine the elements of consciousness Structuralism Sought to describe elements of conscious experience (about the contents of the mind) Functionalism Focused on utility of consciousness (about the activities of the mind) William James (Principles of Psychology) said consciousness is ongoing and continuous, cannot be isolated/reduced to elements James McKeen Cattell looked at individual differences (differences between people in terms of their behaviour, emotion, cognition and development) o Believed that mental abilities (like intelligence) were inherited, could be measured using mental tests o Believed that society was better served by identifying those with superior intelligence and encouraging them to reproduce (like Galton believed) Eugenics: the promotion of selective breeding (for desired traits) Growth of Psychology Gestalt psychology (Max Wertheimer) studies the unity of experience o “The whole is greater than the sum of its parts” Behaviourism (Watson & Skinner): rejected any reference to mind, viewed overt and observable behaviour is the subject matter of psychology o But behaviourism was unable to fully explain human behaviour because it neglected mental processes o So, cognitive psychology was better suited - includes flashbulb memory and the tip- of-the-tongue phenomenon Applied psychology: e.g., Benit made modern intelligence tests to identify schoolchildren who needed educational support (through reasoning and problem solving) o Other than mental testing - employee selection, eyewitness testimony, psychotherapy Psychology as a Profession Scientist-practitioner model: training model of professional psychologists that emphasizes the development of both research and clinical skills Scholar-practitioner model: training model of professional psychologists that emphasizes clinical practice  ASUS Review: PSYC 100 Review Booklet 7 Week 1 Questions: 1.1: What are the key components of ethics? 1. Confidentiality, deception, understanding, scientific method, benefits 2. Consent, confidentiality, privacy, benefits, deception 3. Benefits, scientific method, privacy, consensus, reasoning, deception 4. Privacy, confidentiality, reasoning, benefits, consent 1.2: Which of these are not a possible outcome in NHST? 1. Type I error 2. Type II error 3. Not enough information given 4. Accurate detection 1.3: What is a Type I error? 1. Data shows a relationship that doesn’t exist 2. Relationship doesn’t exist 3. Not enough information is given 4. Data fails to show a relationship that exists 1.4: Which of the following was not involved in the history of psychology? 1. Gestalt psychology 2. Structuralism 3. Functionalism 4. Historicism Week 2 Definitions: Statistical Thinking Cause-and-effect – related to whether we say one variable is causing changes in the other variable, vs. other variables that may be related to these two variables Confidence interval – an interval of plausible values for a population parameter; the interval of values within the margin of error of a statistic Distribution – the pattern of variation in the data Generalizability – related to whether the results from the sample can be generalized to a larger population Margin of error – the expected amount of random variation in a statistic; often defined for 95% confidence level Parameter – a numerical result summarizing a population (e.g., mean, proportion) Population – a larger collection of individuals that we would like to generalize our results to P-value – the probability of observing a particular outcome in a sample, or more extreme, under a conjecture about the larger population or process Random assignment – using a probability-based method to divide a sample into treatment groups Random sampling – using a probability-based method to select a subset of individuals for the sample from the population Reliability – the consistency of a measure  ASUS Review: PSYC 100 Review Booklet 8 Sample – the collection of individuals on which we collect data Statistical significance – a result is statistically significant if it is unlikely to arise by chance alone Validity – the degree to which a measure is assessing what it is intended to measure Research Designs Confound – factors that undermine the ability to draw causal inferences from an experiment Correlation – measures the association between two variables, or how they go together Dependent variable – the variable the researcher measures but does not manipulate in an experimenter Experimenter expectations – when the experimenter’s expectations influence the outcome of a study Independent variable – the variable the researcher manipulates and controls in an experimenter Longitudinal study – a study that follows the same group of individuals over time Operational definitions – how researchers specifically measure a concept Participant demand – when participants behave in a way that they think the experimenter wants them to behave Placebo effect – when receiving special treatment or something new affects human behaviour Quasi-experimental design – an experiment that does not require random assignment to conditions Conducting Psychology Research in the Real World Ambulatory assessment – term describing methodologies that assess the behaviour, physiology, experience, and environments of humans in naturalistic settings Daily diary method – methodology where participants complete a questionnaire about their thoughts, feelings, and behaviour of the day at the end of the day Day reconstruction method (DRM) – methodology where participants describe their experiences and behaviour of a given day retrospectively upon a systematic reconstruction on the following day Ecological momentary assessment – an overarching term to describe methodologies that repeatedly sample participants’ real-world experiences, behaviour, and physiology in real time Ecological validity – degree to which a study finding has been obtained under conditions that are typical for what happens in daily life Electronically activated recorder (EAR) – methodology where participants report on their momentary thoughts, feelings, and behaviours at different points in time over the course of a day External validity – the degree to which a finding generalizes from the specific sample and context of a study to some larger population and broader settings Full-cycle psychology – scientific approach where researchers start with an observational field study to identify an effect in the real world, follow up with lab experimentation to verify the effect and isolate causal mechanisms, and return to field research to corroborate their experimental findings Internal validity – the degree to which a cause-effect relationship between two variables has been unambiguously established Linguistic inquiry and word count – a quantitative text analysis methodology that automatically extracts grammatical and psychological information from a text by counting word frequencies Lived day analysis – methodology where a research team follows and individual around with a video camera to document their daily life  ASUS Review: PSYC 100 Review Booklet 9 White coat hypertension – phenomenon in which patients exhibit elevated blood pressure in the hospital or doctor’s office but not in their everyday lives WEEK 2: RESEARCH METHODS Statistical Thinking Learning Objectives: 1. Define basic elements of a statistical investigation 2. Describe the role of p-values and confidence intervals in statistical inference 3. Describe the role of random sampling in generalizing conclusions from a sample to a population 4. Describe the role of random assignment in drawing cause-and-effect conclusions P-value Probability of observing a particular outcome in a sample, or more extreme, under a conjecture about the larger population or process o How often a random process would give the result found in a study, assuming no external variables Ex: in a study by Hamlin et al., (2007), researchers found that 14 out of 16 infants chose a “helper” toy over the “hinderer” toy o The probability (assuming 50/50 choice) was 0.0021 (p-value) o So, either infants had a preference, or no preference (2/1000 possibility for that outcome) o Because the p-value is small, the study provides strong evidence of a preference P-values are compared to a cut-off value (level of significance) o If p-value < level of significance, hypothesis is rejected à random chance was at play Confidence Intervals An interval of plausible values for a population parameter; the interval of values within the margin of error of a statistic Thus, confidence intervals are used to indicate the reliability of an estimate  ASUS Review: PSYC 100 Review Booklet 10 o How likely the interval is to contain the parameter is determined by the confidence level – increasing this level will widen the confidence interval Random Sampling Goal – selecting a sample that is representative of the population o So, the results from the sample (and study) can be applied to the larger population (generalizability) Random sampling – using a probability-based method to select a subset of individuals for the sample from the population o Eliminates sampling bias, as all individuals from a population can be selected for the study Random Assignment Using a probability-based method to divide a sample into treatment groups o Balances out all variables related to individual differences between participants (and between treatment groups) Random assignment + random sampling can help you have more confidence in your results as they reduce extraneous variables as much as possible Research Designs Learning Objectives: 1. Articulate the difference between correlational and experimental designs 2. Understand how to interpret correlations 3. Understand how experiments help us to infer causality 4. Explain what a longitudinal study is 5. List a strength and weakness of different research designs Experimental Design Has independent and dependent variables o Dependent variable ‘depends’ on independent variable o Researchers manipulate the independent variable to have an outcome on the dependent variable Double-blind procedures prevent confounds Relationship between variables: cause-and-effect Correlational Design Correlation – measures association between two variables (how they go together) o Does NOT imply causation Researchers observe and measure phenomena without intervention or manipulations o Identify patterns in the phenomena You can only examine two variables Interpreting Correlational Designs Plot the relation between the scores on a scatterplot  ASUS Review: PSYC 100 Review Booklet 11 Association between the variables summarized statistically using the correlation coefficient – provides information about the direction and strength of the association Correlations can be: o Strong or weak o Positive or negative Figure 1 - Strong Negative Correlation Figure 2 - Weak Negative Correlation Experimental Design Correlational Design Variables Independent and dependent Naturally occurring variables variables Introduces and manipulates Statistical pattern linking 2 Methodology the variables to obtain a naturally occurring variables specific outcome Relation Between Variables Cause-and-effect Correlation Longitudinal Design Study that follows the same group of individuals over time (+) provide valuable evidence for testing theories (-) time consuming and costly to conduct (-) Attrition – when participants leave a study Quasi-Experimental Design Study that doesn’t require random assignment to conditions – relies on group membership Ex: does marriage make people happier? o Can’t randomly assign people to the ‘married’ and ‘single’ conditions  ASUS Review: PSYC 100 Review Booklet 12 Group memberships are treated as independent variables o Because of this, inference is harder Pros and Cons of Each Design Experimental design: o (+) determines cause-and-effect relationships o (-) more manipulation à reduced ecological validity Longitudinal design: o (+) provides valuable evidence for testing theories o (-) time consuming and costly o (-) Attrition o (-) correlation isn’t causation Quasi-experimental design: o (+) high external validity, as they often involve real-world interventions o (-) random sampling is not used Conducting Psychology Research in the Real World Learning Objectives: 1. Identify limitations of the traditional laboratory experiment 2. Explain ways in which daily life research can further psychological science 3. Know what methods exist for conducting psychological research in the real world Limitations of Experimental Research Manipulated and controlled variables create different realities than what would naturally occur o Experimenters must try balancing internal and external validity Since internal is crucial for research, it is prioritized, however external validity is required to apply it to the population Research Methods for Studying Daily Life Studying Daily Experiences o Experience-sampling method / diary method o Day reconstruction method (DRM) Studying Daily Behaviour o Electronically activated recorder (EAR) Studying Daily Physiology Studying Online Behaviour “Smartphone Psychology” – collecting data via phones Studying Daily Experiences Experience-sampling method: o Premise – collect in-the-moment self-report data directly from people in natural settings o Asks participants several times a day to report on their feelings and thoughts  ASUS Review: PSYC 100 Review Booklet 13 o Increasingly popular – is now the standard for studying daily experiences o Externally valid data! Day reconstructed method (DRM) – participants describe their experiences and behaviours of a day, retrospectively, the following day Studying Daily Behaviour Electronically activated recorder (EAR): o Gives information on participants’ location, activities, interactions, emotional expressions o Naturalistic observation methodological tool Other methods: o Observing people’s rooms and offices to understand how personality is expressed and detected in daily environments As people may not accurately report daily activities, emotions, etc., in a lab setting, assessment of real-world behaviour is crucial Studying Daily Physiology Researchers are interested in how our bodies fluctuate to daily demands of life o Ex: physiological reactions to love, ostracization, etc. Ambulatory physiological monitoring – monitoring physiological reactions as people go about their daily lives Electrocardiogram (ECG) – monitors blood pressure, electrodermal activity, body temp. Methods are used to study how little experiences in our lives leave objective, measurable traces in our body Studying Online Behaviour Recent study tool Emails, chats, tweets, blog posts, all leave direct verbal traces of behaviour Most research looks at online behaviour (personality traits, quality of social life) “Smartphone Psychology” The “what’s next” for psychological research o Since phones have become integral to life, they are key to future research Phones store vast amounts of real-world user interaction data, tracking for locations, physiological monitoring – all valuable for research! Week 2 Questions: 2.1: Your class is playing basketball, while you want to win, you also want to make the teams as even as possible for a fair game. You should use: a) Random sampling b) Random assignment c) External validity d) A and C  ASUS Review: PSYC 100 Review Booklet 14 2.2: What is a weakness of Experimental designs? a) Time consuming and costly b) Random sampling is not used c) Manipulation reduces ecological validity d) Attrition 2.3: If participants in your study are reporting their thoughts and emotions several times a day, what research method are you using? a) Day reconstruction method b) Ambulatory physiological monitoring c) Electronically activated recorder d) Experience-sampling method 2.4: List and describe the basic elements of a statistical investigation. Week 3 Definitions: The Nature-Nurture Question Adoption study – a behaviour genetic research method that involves comparison of adopted children to their adoptive and biological parents Behavioural genetics – the empirical science of how genes and environments combine to generate behaviour Heritability coefficient – an easily misinterpreted statistical construct that purports to measure the role of genetics in the explanation of differences among individuals Quantitative genetics – scientific and mathematical methods for inferring genetic and environmental processes based on the degree of genetic and environmental similarity among organisms Twin studies – a behaviour genetic research method that involves comparison of the similarity of identical and fraternal twins Evolutionary Theories in Psychology Adaptations – evolved solutions to problems that historically contributed to reproductive success Error management theory (EMT) – a theory of selection under conditions of uncertainty in which recurrent cost asymmetries of judgment or inference favour the evolution of adaptive cognitive biases that function to minimize the more costly errors Evolution – change over time Gene Selection Theory – the modern theory of evolution by selection by which differential gene replication is the defining process of evolutionary change Intersexual selection – a process of sexual selection by which evolution (change) occurs because of the mate preference of one sex exerting selection pressure on members of the opposite sex Intrasexual competition – a process of sexual selection by which members of one sex compete, and the victors gain preferential mating access to members of the opposite sex Natural selection – differential reproductive success because of differences in heritable attributes Psychological adaptations – mechanisms of the mind that evolved to solve specific problems of survival or reproduction; conceptualized as information processing devices Sexual selection – the evolution of characteristics because of the mating advantage they give organisms  ASUS Review: PSYC 100 Review Booklet 15 Sexual strategies theory – a comprehensive evolutionary theory of human mating that defines the menu of mating strategies humans pursue, the adaptive problems women and men face when pursuing these strategies, and the evolved solutions to the problems Epigenetics in Psychology DNA methylation – covalent modifications of mammalian DNA occurring via the methylation of cytosine DNA methyltransferases (DNMTs) – enzymes that establish and maintain DNA methylation using methyl-group donor compounds or cofactors Epigenetics – the study of heritable changes in gene expression or cellular phenotype caused by mechanisms other than changes in the underlying DNA sequence Epigenome – the genome-wide distribution of epigenetic marks Gene – a specific DNA sequence that codes for specific polypeptide or protein or an observable inherited trait Genome-wide association study (GWAS) – a study that maps DNA polymorphisms in affected individuals and controls matched for age, sex, and ethnic background with the aim of identifying causal genetic variants Genotype – the DNA content of a cell’s nucleus, whether a trait is externally observable or not Histone acetyltransferases (HATs) and histone deacetylases (HDACs) – HATs are enzymes that transfer acetyl groups to specific positions on histone tails, prompting an “open” chromatin state and transcriptional activation. HDACs remove the acetyl groups, resulting in a “closed” chromatin state and transcriptional repression Histone modifications – posttranslational modifications of the N-terminal “tails” of histone proteins that serve as a major mode of epigenetic regulation. These modifications include acetylation, phosphorylation, methylation, sumoylation, etc. Phenotype – the pattern of expression of the genotype or the magnitude or extent to which it is observably expressed – an observable characteristic or trait of an organism, such as its morphology, development, biochemical or physiological properties, or behaviour WEEK 3: GENETICS AND EVOLUTION The Nature-Nurture Question Learning Objectives 1. Understand what the nature–nurture debate is and why the problem fascinates us. 2. Understand why nature–nurture questions are difficult to study empirically. 3. Know the major research designs that can be used to study nature–nurture questions. 4. Appreciate the complexities of nature–nurture and why questions that seem simple turn out not to have simple answers. Past research has involved breeding animals for specific behavioural traits (Scott & Fuller, 1998) o But we can’t do the same with humans - risk unethical procedures like eugenics (shaping human characteristics through intentional breeding) Behavioural genetics: science of how genes and environments influence behaviour together In typical human families, nature and nurture are difficult to differentiate because many children and raised by and born from their parents  ASUS Review: PSYC 100 Review Booklet 16 o But this can be overcome through adoption studies (comparing adopted children to their adoptive and biological parents) Researchers can use twin studies (compare monozygotic twins who share 100% of their DNA to dizygotic twins who share 50% of their DNA) through quantitative genetics (individuals’ similarities are analyzed based on biological relation) o Heritability coefficient: measures how strongly differences among individuals are related to differences among their genes In mid 20th century, psychology was dominated by the thought that behaviour could only be explained through environmental factors But according to adoption studies, genetics has at least some role (since best predictors of behaviour were found in biological parents who the adopted child had never met) The heritability coefficient has several problems: 1. Doesn’t agree with intuition (e.g., both fraternal and identical twins have 2 arms, so theoretically it would be 100% nurture) 2. Divides traits’ determinants into two distinct portions - doesn’t consider the phenomenon of gene-environment interaction (G x E) Evolutionary Theories in Psychology Learning Objectives 1. Learn what “evolution” means. 2. Define the primary mechanisms by which evolution takes place. 3. Identify the two major classes of adaptations. 4. Define sexual selection and its two primary processes. 5. Define gene selection theory. 6. Understand psychological adaptations. 7. Identify the core premises of sexual strategies theory. 8. Identify the core premises of error management theory and provide two empirical examples of adaptive cognitive biases. Evolution, Natural Selection and Adaptation Evolution: heritable traits developing over time because they help our survival o Helps us see how humans have prospered and why we behave as we do in modern day Physical survival is only important if it contributes to successful reproduction The engine of evolution through natural selection is reproductive not survival success Natural selection: differential reproductive success due to differences in heritable attributes o We have inherited adaptive, psychological processes designed to ensure success in the form of certain genes that endure overtime Adaptations: traits that have evolved over time to increase reproductive success o Survival adaptations: helped our ancestors handle “hostile forces of nature” § E.g., sweat glands help us survive hot temperatures, shivering mechanism helps us survive cold temperatures, developing cravings for fats/sugars helps keep us going in food shortages, fear helps us stay safe  ASUS Review: PSYC 100 Review Booklet 17 o Reproductive adaptations: help us compete for mates § Explained through the Sexual Selection Theory (Darwin) Sexual Selection Theory Sexual selection theory describes the evolution of characteristics due to mating advantage Intrasexual competition: members of one sex compete - victor gains preferential mating access to member of opposite sex o E.g., male stags battle with antlers and winner gains mating access with female o Note: qualities leading to success in intrasexual competition are passed on specifically because they are associated with greater mating success, but sometimes it lowers survival success (e.g., larger antlers could make it harder to evade predators) Intersexual selection: members of one sex are attracted to certain qualities in mates, so desired qualities get passed on in greater numbers because those who have the traits mate more often Gene Selection Theory In modern evolutionary theory, all evolutionary processes boil down to organism’s genes Genes: basic units of heredity/information passed along in DNA that tells cells and molecules how the organism should be built and behave Genes that are better able to encourage organism to reproduce (thus appearing in organism’s offspring) have advantage over competing genes that can’t How can genes boost their own replicative success? 1. They influence odds for survival and reproduction of organism they’re in Individual’s reproductive success/fitness (e.g., female sloths scream as loud as they can, so sloths with louder scream have genes that ensure they are more likely to survive and reproduce) 2. They influence the organism to help other organisms who also likely contain those genes (genetic relatives) to survive and reproduce (inclusive fitness) o E.g., parents help their own kids go through college because that will increase likelihood for reproduction for their kid, which in turn will ensure that the parents’ own genes will be passed on Evolutionary Psychology Psychological Adaptations Physiological Adaptations Mechanisms of the mind that evolved to solve Occur in the body because of one’s specific problems of survival/reproduction environment E.g., sexual jealousy E.g., calluses (tougher skin to protect Input: romantic partner flirting with rival repeatedly scraped areas) Procedure: person evaluates threat rival Input: repeated friction to skin poses to relationship Procedure: skin grows new Output: behavioural; may range from skills cells in affected area vigilance to violence Output: formation of the callus to protect underlying tissue  ASUS Review: PSYC 100 Review Booklet 18 Include traits that improve one’s ability to live in groups/interact Interactionist framework: theory that considers multiple factors when determining outcome Culture has major effect on psychological adaptations o E.g., status within a group is important in all cultures to achieve reproductive success (higher status makes someone more attractive to mates) § In each culture, the definition of status differs Evolutionary psychology does not predict rigid “instincts”; not one rule that constantly works o It studies flexible, environmentally connected adaptations (vary by situation) Investigating Parental Investment Buss & Schmitt, 1993, 2011 For women, wise mating decisions are more valuable because they must biologically grow the child inside them during pregnancy and have higher cultural expectations to raise the child Women will be choosier than men in short-term mating Men will engage in more casual sexual activity (cost is lessened) o Sometimes deceive women about long-term intentions for the benefit of short- term sex o Likely to lower mating standards for short-term mating situations o Let less time elapse before seeking sex, and express desire for larger number of sexual partners o More willing to consent to sexual activity with strangers, less likely to require emotional involvement o Have more frequent sexual fantasies about more sexual partners o More likely to regret missed sexual opportunities In situations where a man and woman were interested in long term mating, both sexes were invested substantially in the relationship and in their children Sexual Strategies Theory Preferential differences for qualities (due to distinct adaptive problems) o Men desire youth and health in women (cues to fertility) o Women desire mates who have resources, qualities linked to obtaining resources, those willing to share those resources with mates Other factors include: o Sex ratio (% of males to females in mating pool) o Cultural practices (e.g., arranged marriages) o Strategies of others (e.g., everyone pursuing short-term sex) Error Management Theory Cost asymmetries  ASUS Review: PSYC 100 Review Booklet 19 o Over evolutionary history, we developed adaptive bias in favor of least costly choice o We psychologically adapt to prefer choices that minimize cost/error Visual descent illusion (Jackson & Cormack, 2008) o People will overestimate distance when looking down from a height compared to looking up in order to be wary of falling from great heights (high cost) Auditory looming bias o People tend to overestimate how close objects are when sound is moving towards them to when it’s moving away o Better to be safe than sorry - more alert when a threat is approaching Sexual over perception bias (Perilloux, Easton & Buss, 2012) o Men often misread sexual interest from a woman because of the cost it has on men when they miss out on a chance for reproduction Epigenetics in Psychology Learning Objectives: 1. Explain what the term epigenetics means, and the molecular machinery involved. 2. Name and discuss important neural and developmental pathways that are regulated by epigenetic factors and provide examples of epigenetic effects on personality traits and cognitive behavior. 3. Understand how misregulation of epigenetic mechanisms can lead to disease states and be able to discuss examples. 4. Recognize how epigenetic machinery can be targets for therapeutic agents and discuss examples. Epigenetics: the study of heritable changes in gene expression (phenotype; observable characteristic) caused by factors other than genetic changes o Includes covalent DNA modifications and post-translational histone modifications o Lead to the epigenome (genome-wide distribution of epigenetic marks); highly dynamic and differs among cell types, tissues and brain regions Epigenome: the genome-wide distribution of epigenetic marks Within each type of mammal cell, ~2m genomic DNA is divided into nuclear chromosomes DNA is wrapped around 8 histones to achieve drastic compaction o Nucleosome (basic unit of chromatin): DNA + histone protein Chromatin: structure that maintains and accesses tightly compacted genome o Alter the likelihood a specific gene will be expressed/silenced Cell functions (gene expression, DNA replication, generation of certain cell types) are influenced by distinct chromatin patterns (covalent modification of histones and DNA) Epigenetic variation emerges across a lifespan (Genetically) identical twins sharing common genotype are epigenetically similar when younger but become more dissimilar (different behaviour/personality, physical traits/risk) DNA & Histone Modification DNA methylation is covalent modifications of mammal DNA; transfer of methyl to cytosine in CpG dinucleotide, catalysed by DNA methyltransferases  ASUS Review: PSYC 100 Review Booklet 20 o Expressed in nervous system and regulated during development o Effect on gene function depends on period of development during methylation and location of methylated cytosine o Methylation in gene regulation regions (promoter & enhancer) usually results in gene silencing and reduced gene expression (Ooi, O’Donnell & Bestor, 2009) Acetylation on histone tails is mediated by opposing enzymes histone acetyltransferases (HATs) and histone deacetylases (HDCATs), (Kuo & Allis, 1998) o Associated with gene activation and increased gene expression (Wade, Pruss & Wolffe, 1997) HATs Associated with DNA demethylation, gene activation, increased gene expression (Sealy & Chalkley, 1978) HATs transfer histone groups to histone tails – promote “open” chromatin, activate transcription HDCATs Removes acetyl group (deacetylation) – closed chromatin and repressed transcription Associated with DNA methylation, gene silencing, decreased gene expression, (David & Chadee, 1998) All provide evidence for existence of histone code for determining cell-specific gene expression (Jenuwein & Allis, 2001) Early Childhood Experiences/Parental Investment Infant bond/parental investment also programs development of individual differences in stress responses, affected memory, attention and emotion o Provides offspring with ability to physiologically adjust gene expression profiles Profiles contribute to organization/function of neural circuits and molecular pathways supporting biological defensive systems, reproductive success and parenting (Bradshaw, 1965) Glucocorticoid: brain structure associated with stress response, learning and memory Histone acetylation and DNA methylation of glucocorticoid receptor gene promoter is necessary link in long-term physiological and behavioural cause of poor maternal care o Possible molecular target for treatments that can reverse effects of childhood abuse o Glucocorticoid receptor gene promoter is more methylated in brains of abused children Tried to determine whether animal results are transferable to humans Maternally Transmitted Response to Stress in Rats Maternal nurturing during first week of life is associated with long-term programming of individual differences in stress responsiveness, emotionality, cognitive performance, reproductive behavior (Caldji et al, 1998), (Liu et al, 1997) In adulthood, offspring of mothers who exhibited increased levels of pup licking and grooming increased expression of glucocorticoid receptor and lower hormonal response to stress compared to those exposed to low licking (Francis et al, 1999) (Liu et al, 1997) Rat pups receiving lower levels of maternal licking/grooming during first week of life showed decreased histone acetylation and increased DNA methylation of neuron-specific  ASUS Review: PSYC 100 Review Booklet 21 promoter of glucocorticoid receptor gene (Weaver et al, 2004), (Weaver, Meaney & Szyf, 2006) o Gene expression is reduced number of glucocorticoid receptors in brain is decreased = higher hormonal response to stress throughout life Turney, Pelascini, Macedo & Muller, 2008 examined post-mortem brain tissue, found that human equivalent of glucocorticoid receptor gene promoter (NR3C1 exon 1F promoter) is also unique to individual Oberlander et al, 2008 found that methylation of glucocorticoid receptor gene promoter maybe an early epigenetic market of maternal mood and risk of increased hormonal responses to stress in infants 3 months old McGowan et al, 2009 found in suicide victims, glucocorticoid receptor gene promoters were more methylated in those who had experienced childhood maltreatment Type of research is limited by inaccessibility of human brain samples: o Relevant epigenetic modification needs to be measured in accessible tissue o May effectively become blood test to measure physiological traces left on genome Child Nutrition & the Epigenome The food you eat is reflected in your development and risk for disease in adult life (Wells, 2003) Nutrients can change DNA methylation and histone modifications, which modifies gene expression in physiologic and pathologic processes (embryo developing, aging, carcinogenesis) o Nutrients influence epigenome by inhibiting enzymes that catalyze DNA methylation/histone modifications oraltering abundance of substrates in the reactions o Rat mothers fed diet low in methyl group donors during pregnancy produced offspring with reduced DNMT-1 expression, decreased DNA methylation, increased histone acetylation at promoter regions of specific genes (such as glucocorticoid receptor) and increased gene expression in livers of juvenile offspring (Lillycrop, Phillips, Jackson, Hanson & Burdge, 2005) and adult offspring (Lillycrop et al, 2007) Seen as tool to prevent pediatric developmental diseases and cancer and delay aging processes Examining Children of Women Pregnant During Famines Lumey & Stein, 1997 found that women who endured famine in late stages of pregnancy gave birth to smaller babies who had risk of insulin resistance later in life (insulin part is from Painter, Roseboom & Bleker, 2005) Lumey & Stein, 1997 found that famine exposure at various stages of gestation was associated with wide range of risks like increased obesity, higher rate of coronary heart disease and lower birth weight Stanner et al, 1997 found offspring who were starved prenatally later experienced impaired glucose tolerance in adulthood, even with more food abundant Heijmans et al, 2008 found 60 years after famine, people exposed to famine prenatally showed reduced DNA methylation compared to unexposed same-sex siblings  ASUS Review: PSYC 100 Review Booklet 22 Epigenetic Regulation of Learning & Memory DNA Methylation Influence genomic activities to produce long term changes in synaptic signaling, organization in the brain and morphology (which support learning and memory) (Day & Sweatt, 2011) Neuronal activity in mice hippocampi is associated with changes in DNA methylation (Guo et al, 2011) Disruption to genes encoding DNA methylation machinery cause learning and memory impairments (Feng et al, 2010) DNA methylation has been implicated in neuronal activity (learning and memory impairments) and maintenance of long-term memory o DNA methylation is important in mediating synaptic plasticity and cognitive function (Day & Sweatt, 2011), (Miller et al, 2010) Histone Modification Histone modifications alter chromatin accessibility and gene expression Memory formation and enhanced synaptic transmission is linked to increased histone acetylation (Guan et al, 2002) and alterations in histone methylation (Schaefer et al, 2009) which promote gene expression Guan et al, 2009 found that neuronal increase in histone deacetylase activity (promotes gene silencing) results in reduced synaptic plasticity and impairs memory Guan et al, 2009 and Levenson et al, 2004 found that pharmacological inhibition of histone deacetylases augments memory formation o Suggests histone deacetylation regulates memory formation Rett Syndrome Jiang, Bressler & Beaudet, 2004 found defects in genes encoding DNA methylation and chromatin machinery exhibit profound effects on cognitive function and mental health o Studied MECP2 and CBP, highly expressed in neurons and involved in regulating neural gene expression (Chen et al, 2003), (Martinowich et al, 2003) Rett Syndrome was studied by Amir et al, 1999 o Mutation in MECP2 gene, responsible for reading DNA sequence, checking for DNA methylation and binding to areas with methylation, preventing binding of bad proteins § MECP2 also influences gene expression that supports dendritic and synaptic development and hippocampus dependent memory (Li, Zhong, Chau, Williams & Chang, 2011), (Skene et al, 2010) § Shahbazian et al, 2002 found that ice with altered MECP2 expression showed genome-wide increase in histone acetylation, neuron cell death, more anxiety, cognitive deficits and social withdrawal o DNA methylation and MECP2 make up cell-specific epigenetic system of regulation of histone modification and gene expression, which is disrupted in Rett Syndrome RTS (Rubinstein-Taybi Syndrome) RTS was studied by Alarcon et al, 2004  ASUS Review: PSYC 100 Review Booklet 23 Mutation in CBP gene; binds to and promotes histone acetylation and gene expression RTS patients show decrease in histone acetylation and cognitive dysfunction (Kalkhoven et al, 2003) o Learning and memory deficits are due to disrupted neural plasticity (Korzus, Rosenfeld & Mayford, 2004) Similar to humans, Josselyn, 2005 found that mice with a mutation of CBP perform poorly in cognitive tasks and show decreased genome-wide histone acetylation o In mice brain CBP was found to act as epigenetic switch to promote birth of new neurons o This mechanism is disrupted in fetal brains of mice with CBP mutation which as pups exhibit early behavioral deficits following removal and separation from mother (Wang et al, 2010) Findings provide a mechanism where environmental cues (through histone modifying enzymes) can regulate epigenetic status and promote neurogenesis/affect neurobehavioral development Misregulation of epigenetic modifications and their enzymes result in neural/cognitive defects Epigenetic Mechanisms in Psychological Disorders Mill et al, 2008 found sites with DNA methylation alterations in genes involved in brain development and neurotransmitter pathways which had been associated with mental illness o Disorders are complex and start at young age but cause lifelong disability o Efforts to identify primary causes of complex psychiatric disorders may benefit from studies linking environmental effects with changes within individual cells Epigenetics that alters chromatin structure (regulate gene expression) are linked to depression-related behavior and action of antidepressant medication o Increasing evidence for similar mechanisms occurring in post-mortem brains of depressed individuals Tsankova et al, 2006 found that in mice, social avoidance resulted in decreased expression of hippocampal genes important in mediating depressive responses Lutter et al, 2008 found that chronic social defeat stress was found to decrease gene expression implicated in normal emotion processing Convington et al, 2009 found that levels of histone markers of increased gene expression were down regulated in human post-mortem brain samples from individuals with depressive history Administration of antidepressants increased histone markers of increased gene expression and reversed gene repression from defeat stress (Tsankova et al, 2006), (Wilkinson et al, 2009), supports for use of HDAC inhibitors o Cassel et al, 2006 found that several HDAC inhibitors had been found to exert antidepressant effects by each modifying distinct cellular targets Also evidence that irregular gene expression from altered epigenetics is linked to suicide (McGowan et al, 2008) Gene-Environment Interactions Early trauma is not a cause of mental illness alone; many abused children are healthy  ASUS Review: PSYC 100 Review Booklet 24 Inherited differences in specific genes may determine one’s sensitivity through gene- environment interplay Glucocorticoid receptor appears to moderate effects of early trauma on mental health Remember, epigenome is non static, can be molded by developmental signals, environmental perturbations, diseases states This presents experimental challenge in search for epigenetic risk factors in psychological disorders (Rakyan, Down, Balding & Beck, 2011) Sample size and epigenomic testing depends on number of tissues affected and type/distribution of epigenetic modifications Week 3 Questions: 3.1: Which is not a method of studying the nature vs. nurture question? 1. Adoption study 2. Twin study 3. Animal study 4. Laboratory studies on humans 3.2: Which of the following best describes evolution? 1. Heritable traits developing over time because they help our survival 2. Differential reproductive success due to differences in heritable attributes 3. Traits that have evolved over time to increase reproductive success 4. The theory that describes the transition of species over time in essentially a one-fits-all rule 3.3: Which of the following is not a form of either sexual- or gene-selection theory? 1. Intrasexual competition 2. Intersexual competition 3. Genes that allow reproduction are better selected 4. Sexual overperception bias 3.4: What is the difference between HDCATs and HATs? 1. HATs are associated with increased gene expression while HDCATs are associated with a decrease 2. HATs are enzymes, HDCATs are not 3. HDCATs mediate acetylation on histone tails while HCATs mediate methylation on histone tails 4. None of the above Week 4 Definitions: Factors Influencing Learning Chunk – the process of grouping information together using our knowledge Classical conditioning – describes stimulus-stimulus associative learning Encoding – process of putting information into memory Habituation – occurs when the response to a stimulus decreases with exposure  ASUS Review: PSYC 100 Review Booklet 25 Implicit learning – occurs when we acquire information without intent that we cannot easily express Implicit memory – a type of long-term memory that does not require conscious thought to encode – type of memory one makes without intent Incidental learning – any type of learning that happens without the intention to learn Intentional learning – any type of learning that happens when motivated by intention Metacognition – describes the knowledge and skills people have in monitoring and controlling their own learning and memory Nonassociative learning – occurs when a single repeated exposure leads to a change in behaviour Operant conditioning – describes stimulus-response associative learning Perceptual learning – occurs when aspects of our perception changes as a function of experience Sensitization – occurs when the response to a stimulus increases with exposure Transfer-appropriate processing – a principle that states that memory performance is superior when a test taps the same cognitive processes as the original encoding activity Working memory – the form of memory we use to hold onto information temporarily, usually for the purposes of manipulation Conditioning and Learning Blocking – in classical conditioning, the finding that no conditioning occurs to a stimulus if it is combined with a previously conditioned stimulus during conditioning trials Conditioned compensatory response – in classical conditioning, a conditioned response that opposes, rather than is the same as, the unconditioned response. Functions to reduce the strength of the unconditioned response. Often seen in conditioning when drugs are used as unconditioned stimuli Conditioned response (CR) – the response that is elicited by the conditioned stimulus after classical conditioning Conditioned stimulus (CS) – an initially neutral stimulus that elicits a conditioned response after it has been associated with an unconditioned stimulus Discriminative stimulus – in operant conditioning, a stimulus that signals whether the response will be reinforced. “Sets the occasion” for the operant response Extinction – decrease in the strength of a learned behaviour that occurs when the conditioned stimulus is presented without the unconditioned stimulus Fear conditioning – Pavlovian conditioning in which the conditioned stimulus is associated with an aversive unconditioned stimulus, and because of learning, the CS comes to evoke fear Goal-directed behaviour – instrumental behaviour that is influenced by the animal’s knowledge of the association between the behaviour and its consequence and the current value of the consequence Habit – instrumental behaviour that occurs automatically in the presence of a stimulus and is no longer influenced by the animal’s knowledge of the value of the reinforcer Law of effect – the idea that instrumental or operant responses are influenced by their effects Observational learning – learning by observing the behaviour of others Operant – a behaviour that is controlled by its consequences Prediction error – when the outcome of a conditioning trial is different from that which is predicted by the conditioned stimuli that are present on the trial Preparedness – the idea that an organism’s evolutionary history can make it easy to learn a particular association  ASUS Review: PSYC 100 Review Booklet 26 Punisher – a stimulus that decreases the strength of an operant behaviour when it is made a consequence of the behaviour Quantitative law of effect – mathematical rule that states that the effectiveness of a reinforcer at strengthening an operant response depends on the amount of reinforcement earned for all alternative behaviours. Reinforcer – any consequence of a behaviour that strengthens the behaviour or increases the likelihood that it will be performed again Reinforcer devaluation effect – the finding that an animal will stop performing an instrumental response that once led to a reinforcer if the reinforcer is separately made aversive or undesirable Renewal effect – recovery of an extinguished response that occurs when the context is changed after extinction Social learning theory – the theory that people can learn new responses and behaviours by observing the behaviour of others Social models – authorities that are the targets for observation and who model behaviours Spontaneous recovery – recovery of an extinguished response that occurs with the passage of time after extinction Stimulus control – when an operant behaviour is controlled by a stimulus that precedes it Taste aversion learning – the phenomenon in which a taste is paired with sickness, and this causes the organism to reject – and dislike – that taste in the future Unconditioned response (UR) – in classical conditioning, an innate response that is elicited by a stimulus before conditioning Unconditioned stimulus (US) – in classical conditioning, the stimulus that elicits the response before conditioning occurs Vicarious reinforcement – learning that occurs by observing the reinforcement or punishment of another person Knowledge Emotions Accommodation – changing one’s beliefs about the world in light of new experiences Appraisal structure – the set of appraisals that bring about an emotion Appraisal theories – evaluations that relate what is happening in the environment to people’s values, goals, and beliefs. Contend that emotions are caused by patterns of appraisals Awe – emotion associated with profound, moving, experiences Confusion – emotion associated with conflicting and contrary information Coping potential – people’s beliefs about their ability to handle challenges Functionalist theories of emotion – theories of emotion that emphasize the adaptive role of an emotion in handling common problems throughout evolutionary history Impasse-driven learning – an approach to instruction that motivates active learning by having learners work through perplexing barriers Interest – emotion associated with curiosity and intrigue Intrinsically motivated learning – learning that is “for its own sake” Knowledge emotions – family of emotions associated with learning, reflecting, and exploring Openness to experience – one of the five major factors of personality, associated with higher curiosity, creativity, emotional breadth, and open-mindedness Surprise – emotion rooted in expectancy violation that orients people toward the unexpected event Trait curiosity – stable individual-differences in how easily and how often people become curious  ASUS Review: PSYC 100 Review Booklet 27 WEEK 4: LEARNING Factors Influencing Learning Learning Objectives: 1. Name multiple forms of learning 2. List some individual differences that affect learning 3. Describe the effect of various encoding activities on learning 4. Describe three general principles of learning Forms of Learning Auditory perceptual learning – learning that occurs when aspects of our perception changes as a function of experience o Ex: people hear songs differently due to personal experiences Implicit learning – learning that occurs when we acquire information without intent that we cannot easily express and without awareness that it was learnt o Ex: language acquisition o Implicit memory – long-term memory that doesn’t require conscious thought to encode Nonassociative learning – learning that occurs when a single repeated exposure leads to a change in behaviour o Ex: touching a hot pan, fire alarm noises o Habituation – when responses lessen with exposure o Sensitization – when responses increase with exposure Individual Differences Affecting Learning Examples: o Motivation – increased motivation à increased ability to learn o Organization and planning skills o Working memory capacity – memory used to hold onto information temporarily § Higher working memory à better reasoning skills + reading comprehension o Anxiety § Ex: math anxiety à smaller capacity for remembering math-related information o Expertise – having more expertise enhances our ability to learn new information § Chunk – process of grouping information together using our knowledge Encoding Encoding – the way we put information into memory Incidental learning – learning that occurs when we acquire information when we acquire information without intent that we cannot easily express Intentional learning – learning that happens when motivated by intention  ASUS Review: PSYC 100 Review Booklet 28 Ex: study shows that survival processing (thinking about rating words in a list to its relevance in a survival scenario) led to higher recall than intentional learning o Shows the importance of how we learn information Repetition plays a role in encoding information o Spacing repetitions in time is better than massing them all together o Increasing spacing between consecutive presentations appears to benefit learning further Testing – affect memory as retrieval is a good way of enhancing learning The Three Principles of Learning 1. The value of metacognition o Metacognition – knowledge and skills people have in monitoring and controlling their own learning and memory o Not useful if someone can’t discern between material they mastered and material they need to learn 2. Transfer-appropriate processing o Transfer-appropriate processing – principle stating memory performance is better when a test taps the same cognitive processes as the original encoding activity o The situation where one retrieves information can influence ease of retrieval 3. The value of forgetting o We don’t need to retrieve all the information we encode o Thus, forgetting information can clear the way for crucial information Conditioning and Learning Learning Objectives: 1. Distinguish between classical and instrumental conditioning 2. Understand how each conditioning functions 3. List aspects of observational learning according to Social Learning Theory Classical conditioning – procedure in which an initially neutral stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus o Result is that the conditioned stimulus begins to elicit a conditioned response Instrumental (operant) conditioning – process in which animals learn about the relationship between their behaviours and their consequences Classical Conditioning Pavlov used dogs to discover classical conditioning o Presented a stimulus (sound of metronome) then gave the dog food o After repetitions, dogs started to salivate at the sound of the metronome Unconditioned stimulus (US) – stimulus that elicits the response before conditioning occurs (dog food) Unconditioned response (UR) – innate response elicited by a stimulus before conditioning (salivation) Conditioned stimulus (CS) – initially neutral stimulus that elicits a conditioned response after it’s been associated with an US (metronome)  ASUS Review: PSYC 100 Review Booklet 29 Conditioned response (CR) – response elicited by the conditioned stimulus after conditioning (salivation) Instrumental Conditioning Occurs when a behaviour is associated with the occurrence of a significant event Skinner box: o Rat learns to press a level in a cage to receive food o There’s no natural association between the lever and food, so the rat must learn this connection § Operant behaviour – behaviour “operates” on the environment (an action that the animal makes itself) o When the rat learns that the level is associated with food, the behaviour is reinforced Instrumental condition studies how the effects of a behaviour influence the probability that it will occur again Observational Learning Observational learning – learning by observing the behaviours of others Part of Bandura’s Social Learning Theory – theory that people can learn new responses and behaviours by observing others Observational learning has 4 parts: 1. Attention – one must pay attention to what they’re observing to learn 2. Retention – to learn, one must retain the observed behaviour in memory 3. Initiation – acknowledging the learner must execute the learned behaviour 4. Motivation – observer must be motivated to engage in observational learning Bobo Doll Experiment Bandura had children observe an adult interacting with Bobo o One group of children – adults were aggressive with Bobo o Another group – watched adult displaying no aggression to Bobo Adults left the room and children interacted with Bobo Found that children exposed to aggressive social models were likelier to behaviour aggressively with Bobo Vicarious reinforcement – learning that occurs by observing the reinforcement or punishment of another person Knowledge Emotions Learning Objectives: 1. Identify the four knowledge emotions 2. Describe the patterns of appraisals that bring about these emotions 3. Discuss how knowledge emotions promote learning What is a Knowledge Emotion?  ASUS Review: PSYC 100 Review Booklet 30 Knowledge Emotion – family of emotions associated with learning, reflecting, and exploring Functionalist theories of emotion – emotions emphasize the adaptive role of an emotion in handling common problems They come about when unexpected events occur in the environment They motivate people to explore unfamiliar things, builds knowledge and learning Appraisal theories – evaluations that relate what’s happening in the environment to people’s values, goals, etc. o Contend that emotions are caused by patterns of appraisals, whether an event further or hinders a goal and whether an event can be coped with The 4 Knowledge Emotions 1. Surprise 2. Interest 3. Confusion 4. Awe Knowledge Emotion – Surprise Surprise – emotion rooted in expectancy violation that orients people toward the unexpected event Appraisal – “expectedness check”/Novelty o When a “high contrast” even occurs in the environment, people become surprised High unexpectedness à high contrast event à Surprise Knowledge Emotion – Interest Interest – emotion associated with curiosity and intrigue, motivates engaging with new things and learning more about them Engages people with things that are new, odd, unfamiliar o If people avoided new things, we wouldn’t learn Appraisals: o Appraisals of novelty – things are unexpected/unfamiliar o Coping potential – people’s beliefs about their ability to handle challenges § Refers to people’s evaluations of their ability to manage what is happening Mental Challenge (novelty) + High Coping Potential à Interest Knowledge Emotion – Confusion Confusion – emotion associated with conflicting and contrary information, such as when people appraise an event as unfamiliar and as hard to understand o Motivates people to work through complex information and fosters deeper learning Promotes learning and thinking through hard barriers – impasse-driven learning Appraisals:  ASUS Review: PSYC 100 Review Booklet 31 o High novelty o Event is hard to comprehend Novelty + Event hard to comprehend à Confusion Knowledge Emotion – Awe Awe – emotion associated with profound, moving experiences Appraisals: o Appraisal of something as vast, beyond normal scope of their experience (event is inconsistent with one’s existing knowledge) o Accommodation – changing one’s beliefs about the world and how it works in light of new experiences Vast event + Changing beliefs to Accommodate it à Awe Knowledge Emotions Promoting Learning Knowledge emotions expand our ideas about what emotions are and their function o Crucial to daily challenges – responding to threats and building relationships The emotions draw our attention to events that warrant them (i.e., new events)  ASUS Review: PSYC 100 Review Booklet 32 o Then, they motivate us to engage with them to expand our understanding of the world Week 4 Questions: 4.1: You touch a hot pan and burn your hand. You now know that you should use oven mitts when moving and dealing with pans. What type of learning occurred? a) Sensitization b) Nonassociative learning c) Implicit learning d) Vicarious reinforcement 4.2: What cognitive appraisal(s) is associated with awe? a) Novelty b) Changing beliefs c) Vast event d) A and B e) B and C 4.3: Which of the following is not a part of observational learning as per Bandura’s social learning theory? a) Caution b) Retention c) Motivation d) Initiation 4.4: Describe Pavlov’s classical conditioning (dog experiment) in depth, being sure to relate each component of classical conditioning to the experiment. Week 5 Definitions: Neurons Action potential – a transient all-or-nothing electrical current that is conducted down the axon when the membrane potential reaches the threshold of excitation Axon – part of the neuron that extends off the soma, splitting several times to connect with other neurons; main output of the neuron Cell membrane – a bi-lipid layer of molecules that separates the cell from the surrounding extracellular fluid Dendrite – part of a neuron that extends away from the cell body and is the main input to the neuron Diffusion – the force on molecules to move from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration Electrostatistic pressure – the force on two ions with similar charge to repel each other; the force of two ions with opposite charge to attract to one another Excitatory postsynaptic potentials – a depolarizing postsynaptic current that causes the membrane potential to become more positive and move towards the threshold of excitation Inhibitory postsynaptic potentials – a hyperpolarizing postsynaptic current that causes the membrane potential to become more negative and move away from the threshold of excitation  ASUS Review: PSYC 100 Review Booklet 33 Ion channels – proteins that span the cell membrane, forming channels that specific ions can flow through between the intracellular and extracellular space Ionotropic receptor – ion channel that opens to allow ions to permeate the cell membrane under specific conditions, such as the presence of a neurotransmitter or a specific membrane potential Myeline sheath – substance around the axon of a neuron that serves as insulation to allow the action potential to conduct rapidly toward the terminal buttons Neurotransmitters – chemical substance released by presynaptic terminal button that acts on the postsynaptic cell Nucleus – collection of nerve cells found in the brain which typically serve a specific function Resting membrane potential – the voltage inside the cell relative to the voltage outside the cell while the cell is at rest (approximately -70mV) Sodium-potassium pump – an ion channel that uses the neuron’s energy (ATP) to pump three Na+ ions outside the cell in exchange for bringing two K+ ions inside the cell Soma – cell body of a neuron that contains the nucleus and genetic information, and directs protein synthesis Spines – protrusions on the dendrite of a neuron that form synapses with terminal buttons of the presynaptic axon Synapse – junction between the presynaptic terminal button of one neuron and the dendrite, axon, or soma of another postsynaptic dendritic spine, axon, or soma Threshold of excitation – specific membrane potential that the neuron must reach to initiate an action potential Hormones and Behaviour 5a-reductase – an enzyme required to convert testosterone to 5a-dihydrotestosterone Aggression – a form of social interaction that includes threat, attack, and fighting Aromatase – an enzyme that converts androgens into estrogens Chromosomal sex – the sex of an individual as determined by the sex chromosomes Defeminization – the removal of the potential for female traits Demasculinization – the removal of the potential for male traits Dihydrotestosterone (DHT) – a primary androgen that is an androgenic steroid product of testosterone and binds strongly to androgen receptors Endocrine gland – a gland from which hormones are released into the blood stream in response to specific biological signals Estrogen – any of the C18 class of steroid hormones, so named because of the estrus-generating properties in females, includes estradiol and estriol Feminization – the induction of female traits Gonadal sex – the sex of an individual as determined by the possession of either ovaries or testes Hormone – organic chemical messenger released from endocrine cells that travels through the blood to interaction with target cells at some distance to cause a biological response Masculinzation – the induction of male traits Neurotransmitter – a chemical messenger that travels between neurons to provide communication. Some neurotransmitters, such as norepinephrine, can leak into the blood system and act as hormones Oxytocin – a peptide hormone secreted by the pituitary gland to trigger lactation Parental behaviour – behaviours performed in relation to one’s offspring that contributes to their survival Progesterone – a primary progestin that is involved in pregnancy and mating behaviours  ASUS Review: PSYC 100 Review Booklet 34 Progestin – a class of C21 steroid hormones named for their progestational (pregnancy- supporting) effects Prohormone – a molecule that can act as a hormone itself or be converted into another hormone with different properties Prolactin – protein hormone that is highly conserved throughout the animal kingdom. Associated with reproduction and synergistic actions with steroid hormones Receptor – a chemical structure on the cell surface or inside of a cell that has an affinity for a specific chemical configuration of a hormone, neurotransmitter, or other compound Psychopharmacology Agonists – a drug that increases or enhances a neurotransmitter’s effect Antagonist – a drug that blocks a neurotransmitter’s effect Enzyme – a protein produced by a living organism that allows or helps a chemical reaction to occur Enzyme induction – process through which a drug can enhance the production of an enzyme Metabolism – breakdown of substances Pharmacokinetics – the action of a drug through the body, including absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion Polypharmacy – the use of many medications Psychoactive drug – a drug that changes mood or the way someone feels Psychotropic drug – a drug that changes mood or emotion, usually used when talking about drugs prescribed for various mental conditions WEEK 5: NEURONS Neurons Learning Objectives: 1. Differentiate the functional roles between the two main cell classes in the brain, neurons and glia. 2. Describe how the forces of diffusion and electrostatic pressure work collectively to facilitate electrochemical communication. 3. Define resting membrane potential, excitatory postsynaptic potentials, inhibitory postsynaptic potentials, and action potentials. 4. Explain features of axonal and synaptic communication in neurons. Basic Nomenclature Dendrites: processes that extend away from the cell body (the soma) and serve as the main source of input Soma: cell body of a neuron containing the nucleus and genetic information, serves to direct protein synthesis Nucleus: located within the soma, contains genetic information, directs protein synthesis, and supplies the energy and the resources the neuron needs to function Axons: processes that extends far away from the soma and carry action potentials to another neuron Synapse: the place at which the axon of one neuron comes in close contact to the dendrite of another neuron  ASUS Review: PSYC 100 Review Booklet 35 Myelin sheath: the substance around the axon of some neurons that serves as insulation to allow the action potential to conduct rapidly toward the terminal buttons Terminal button: the part of the end of the axon that forms synapses with postsynaptic dendrite (via the dendrite’s spines/protrusions), axon, or soma Synaptic gap: also known as the synaptic cleft; the small space between the presynaptic terminal button and the postsynaptic dendritic spine, axon, or soma Synaptic vesicles: groups of neurotransmitters packed together within the terminal button Cell Types Sensory neurons: help us receive information on external environment Motor neurons: allow us to initiate movement and behaviour (to interact with environment) Interneurons: process sensory input into meaningful representations, plan appropriate response, and connect to motor neurons to execute behaviour Unipolar Bipolar Multipolar 1 axon, no dendrites 1 axon, 1 dendrite Most common Ideal for relaying info Help pass info to One axon, many dendrites Transmits physiological info from specific centers in the Communicates motor and periphery up the spinal cord to the brain sensory info to other neurons brain For sensory perception Note: Glial cells do not participate in communication between cells like neurons do Resting Membrane Potential Inter- and extracellular fluid contains Na+, K+, Cl- and anions (A-) The cell membrane has ion channels that allow ions to pass in/out of the cell The two forces that act to maintain a steady state when the cell is at rest are: diffusion and electrostatic pressure o Diffusion: force that causes molecules to move from high to low concentration  ASUS Review: PSYC 100 Review Booklet 36 o Electrostatic pressure: force on 2 ions of similar charge to repel one another and on 2 ions of opposite charge to attract one another Equilibrium potential: the voltage at which diffusion force is equal but opposite to the electrostatic pressure force → results in no ion flow Resting membrane potential: baseline electrical charge in the cell compared to outside the cell o RMP of a neuron is around -70 mV Force type Anions Potassium Chloride Sodium Permeability No permeability Very permeable Very permeable Minimally at rest permeable Diffusion N/A (no ion Pushes K+ outside Pushes Cl- into Pushes Na+ channels allow the cell (higher cell (higher inside cell for A- inside) outside) (higher outside) movement) Electrostatic N/A Pushes K+ inside Pushes Cl- Pushes Na+ pressure the cell (+ charge is outside cell (- inside cell attracted to - charge is attached (*but Na stays charge inside cell) to + charge outside) outside) *Note that Na+ is removed from inside the cell by a sodium-potassium pump (uses ATP to move 3 Na+ ions out of the cell and 2 K+ ions inside the cell) Action Potential “A transient all-or-nothing electrical current that is conducted down the axon when the membrane potential reaches the threshold of excitation.” Must reach threshold of excitation (around 50 mV), which triggers action potential Excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs): a depolarizing current that causes the membrane potential to become more positive (closer to the threshold of excitation) Inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs): a hyperpolarizing current that causes the membrane potential to become more negative (further away from the threshold of excitation) ESPSs and IPSPs summate/add together in time and space They can summate because they are graded potentials (vary in strength) 1. EPSPs summate, reach the threshold of excitation 2. Membrane potential is depolarized, initiating an action potential 3. Neurotransmitter is released from presynaptic terminal button into synaptic gap  ASUS Review: PSYC 100 Review Booklet 37 4. Neurotransmitter binds to ionotropic receptors in lock-and-key fashion on postsynaptic dendritic spine 5. EPSP or IPSP in dendrite of postsynaptic cell depends on the type of neurotransmitter and the permeability of the ion channel *Note that the refractory period is caused by the closing of Na+ channels after it has entered the cell, making the membrane potential very positive (+40 mV) Ensures that no action potential occurs and that the action potential is unidirectional (down the axon, away from soma) Myelin speeds up the process of action potentials because it insulates the axon (thus doesn’t allow any fluid to exist between myelin and cell membrane) for saltatory conduction o Saves cell energy to regain resting membrane potential (since pumps need ATP) o Although action potential degrades, it’s still large enough to trigger new action potential in next Node of Ranvier (gaps in myelin sheath, allowing action potential to “jump”) Hormones & Behaviour Learning Objectives: 1. Define the basic terminology and basic principles of hormone–behavior interactions. 2. Explain the role of hormones in behavioral sex differentiation. 3. Explain the role of hormones in aggressive behavior. 4. Explain the role of hormones in parental behavior. 5. Provide examples of some common hormone–behavior interactions. Hormones: organic chemical messengers made and released by endocrine glands into the blood to maybe travel and act on target structures away from origin Hormones function like neurotransmitters but can operate over greater distance and temporal range than the latter  ASUS Review: PSYC 100 Review Booklet 38 The 3 components of behaviour are input/sensory systems, integrators (CNS) and output systems/effectors o Hormones do not cause behavioural changes, but instead include the systems so that stimuli are more likely to elicit a specific response o But they influence all 3 systems Hormones can affect behaviour but also behaviour can affect hormone concentrations (refer to zebra finch example in textbook, then to following testosterone examples) Sex Differences Early steroid hormone treatment causes irreversible and permanent masculinization of rodent behaviour (mating and aggressive) Activation effects are reversible and caused by steroid hormones in adulthood Typical female behaviour needs tack of exposure to androgens in early life (leading to feminization) and requires androgens to activate neural circuits in adulthood o Works on animals with distinct sexual dimorphism in behaviour but not humans