Anthropology: Appreciating Human Diversity (PDF)

Anthropology Appreciating Human Diversity Fifteenth Edition Conrad Phillip Kottak University of Michigan McGraw-Hill © 2013 McGraw-Hill Companies. All Rights Reserved. C H A P T E R ARCHAIC HOMO...

Anthropology Appreciating Human Diversity Fifteenth Edition Conrad Phillip Kottak University of Michigan McGraw-Hill © 2013 McGraw-Hill Companies. All Rights Reserved. C H A P T E R ARCHAIC HOMO 9-2  ARCHAIC HOMO Early Homo Out of Africa I: H. Erectus Archaic H. Sapiens The Neandertals Homo floresiensis 9-3  ARCHAIC HOMO What were the earliest forms of Homo, and where did they originate and eventually migrate to? What were the major toolmaking traditions and adaptive strategies of archaic Homo? What were the Neandertals like, and how did they differ from earlier and later forms of Homo? 9-4  EARLY HOMO Approximately 2 m.y.a., two distinct hominin groups: early Homo and A. boisei (hyper robust australopithecine) A. boisei – extinct around 1 m.y.a. Homo evolved into H. erectus by 1.9 m.y.a. Dental, facial and cranial robustness of australopithecines was reduced as early forms of Homo evolved Homo began hunting large animals to supplement the gathering of vegetation and scavenging 9-5  H. RUDOLFENSIS AND H. HABILIS H. rudolfensis is based on KNM-ER 1470 skull found by Leakey and Ngeneo Kenya Mixture of Homo and Au. features Brain size similar to Homo; larger than Au. Molars are more like hyperrobust Australopithecus Much debate – age of skull, own species or part of Homo habilis; lived earlier than Homo habilis or at same time The only sure conclusion: several different kinds of hominin lived in Africa before and after the advent of Homo 9-6 H. HABILIS AND H. ERECTUS First representation of homo habilis found at Olduvai Gorge (1960) by Leakeys; dated to 1.8 m.y.a. Another habilis – Tim White (1986) OH62: small female with apelike limb bones Suggests a greater tree-climbing ability than later hominins Cranial capacity: between 600 and 700 cm3 Small size and primitive proportions of Homo habilis were unexpected, given knowledge of early Homo erectus in East Africa By 1.6 m.y.a., H. erectus attained cranial capacity of 900 cm3 and modern body shape and height 9-7  H. HABILIS AND H. ERECTUS Sister species: Recent fossil finds from Kenya Findings: H. habilis jawbone (1.44 m.y.a.) and H. erectus skull (1.55 m.y.a.) Significant for two reasons: shows that H. habilis and H. erectus overlapped (rather than ancestor and descendent) Sexual dimorphism in H. erectus is greater than expected (more than in chimps or modern humans) H. habilis and H. erectus split from common ancestor prior to 2 m.y.a. and lived side by side in eastern Africa for approximately 500,000 years The fact that they remained separate species for so long suggests that they had their own ecological niches, thus avoiding direct competition Fossil record: H. rudolfensis (2.03 – 1.78 m.y.a.); H. habilis (1.9 – 1.44 m.y.a.); H. erectus (1.9 – 1.0 m.y.a.) 9-8  H. HABILIS AND H. ERECTUS The significance of hunting: The ecological niche that separated H. erectus from H. habilis and A. boisei probably involved greater reliance on hunting, along with improved cultural means of adaptation, including better tools With emergence of H. erectus, there is rapid increase in number and diversity of tools being made Tools made it possible for homo to: acquire meat more reliably use hides after butchering Dig and process tubers, roots, nuts, and seeds more efficiently Batter, crush, and pulp coarse vegetation New developments with tools eased burden on the chewing apparatus; chewing muscles developed less; began to select for smaller dentition Supporting structures, such as jaws and cranial crests, were also reduced; smaller jaws has less room to fit large teeth; natural selection 9-9  Homo erectus Cultural manipulation of environment allowed H. erectus to exploit a wide range of ecological zones Biology – stronger skulls and better protected brains; better survival rates when hunting large animals Base if skull expanded; ridge of spongy bone across the back for attachment of massive neck muscles Average cranial capacity increased from about 500 cm3 in australopithecines to about 1,000 cm3 in Homo erectus (within modern range of variation) 9-10  OUT OF AFRICA I: H. ERECTUS Biological and cultural changes enabled H. erectus to employ gathering and hunting strategies Helped H. erectus move out of Africa into Asia and Europe Through population growth and dispersal, small groups broke off from larger ones, H. erectus gradually spread and changed Fueled by lifestyle based on hunting and gathering; searching for meat 9-11  PALEOLITHIC TOOLS Paleolithic: Old Stone Age, includes: Technique differentiation Best stone tools are made from rocks, like flint, that fracture sharply in predictable ways when hammered Marked by refinement of technique and recognizable groupings of toolmaking traditions (different tools for different purposes) 9-12  PALEOLITHIC TOOLS Acheulean: Lower Paleolithic tool tradition associated with H. erectus (dates to at least 1.76 m.y.a.) Chipped the core bilaterally and symmetrically in a predetermined shape (versus Oldowan tools where flaking wasn’t done to produce choppers but to produce flakes) Hand axes – used for many tasks Predetermined shapes indicated a cognitive leap between early hominins and H. erectus Greater efficiency Tools were predetermined form and for specific tasks Shows increasingly complex technology Trends became more obvious with H. sapiens 9-13  ADAPTIVE STRATEGIES OF H. ERECTUS Interrelated changes in biology and culture increased human adaptability (capacity to live in and modify an ever-wider range of environments) Biology Bipedalism – larger and longer-legged body permitted long-distance stalking and endurance during hunt Bony ridge at rear and front of skull, traits which may have protected brain (increased survival rates when hunting large animals) Large brow above eyes and large front teeth (using front teeth to pull; makes front teeth large and creates brow above eyes) Teeth - front teeth were especially large; molar size was well below Au. average (chewing demands were reduced) Increased cranial capacity - H. erectus average cranial capacity (1000 cm3) doubled australopithecine average H. erectus face and jaws smaller than australopithecines’ 9-14  ADAPTIVE STRATEGIES OF H. ERECTUS Cultural Adaptations Hunting and gathering economy Helped Homo erectus expand their environment and migrate out of Africa and into Europe and Asia Improved tools Number and diversity of tools was increasing which aided Homo in hunting and gathering Technology made it possible to acquire meat more reliably and to use the hides after butchering (i.e. clothing, blankets…) Able to dig and process tubers, roots, nuts, and seeds more efficiently Tools to batter, crush, and pulp coarse vegetation also reduced chewing demands Fire Hearths confirm that fire had become part of the human adaptive kit by this time Permitted occupation of cave sites Protection from bears and saber-toothed tigers Survive winter cold Cooking Cooking breaks down vegetable fibers, tenderizes meat, kills parasites, makes meat more digestible reducing strain on chewing apparatus 9-15  Language Was language an additional advantage? Socially complex activities and technologies such as Acheulean tools, cooperative hunting, and H. erectus’ cranial capacity all support possibility of rudimentary speech Speech would have aided coordination, cooperation, and the learning of traditions No definite evidence, however, given that apes have been shown to have some potential for language based communication, and given brain size of H. erectus, it seems possible that they had some form of speech 9-16  THE EVOLUTION AND EXPANSION OF H. ERECTUS Dmanisi fossils (Georgia) One complete and two partial skulls (1.77 – 1.7 m.y.a.) suggest rapid spread of early Homo out of Africa and into Eurasia by 1.7–1.77 m.y.a. Likely in search of meat Java Man Indonesian Island of Java Earliest H. erectus fossil found but not most ancient Fossils also found in Tanzania, China, and Europe Probably increased range in pursuit of meat 9-17 Figure 9.1: Evolution in Toolmaking 9-18  Figure 9.3: The Sites of Discovery of Homo erectus and Its Probable Maximum Distribution 9-19  ARCHAIC H. SAPIENS Africa (center during australopithecine period) joined by Asia and Europe during H. erectus and H. sapiens periods We know more from Europe because archaeology and fossil hunting have been going on longer there than Africa or Asia Archaic Homo sapiens (300,000? to 28,000 B.P.) encompasses earliest members of species along with Neandertals (130,000 to 28,000 B.P.) Brain size in archaic H. sapiens was within modern human range (1,350 cm3) Rounding out of the brain case associated with increased brain size 9-20 RECAP 9.1: Summary of Data on Homo Fossil Groups 9-21  ICE AGES OF THE PLEISTOCENE Pleistocene – epoch of human life Each subdivision of Pleistocene is associated with particular group of hominins Lower Pleistocene – late Au. and early Homo Middle Pleistocene – Homo erectus and archaic homo sapians Upper Pleistocene – Modern Homo sapiens (appeared late in Middle Pleistocene and was sole hominin of Upper Pleistocene) and Neandertals Several glacials/ice ages: major advances of continental ice sheets in Europe and North America during second million years of Pleistocene Separated by interglacials: extended warm periods between glacials Würm: last glacial, 75,000 to 12,000 B.P. Interstadials: brief periods of relative warmth during the Würm glacial 9-22  H. ANTECESSOR AND H. HEIDELBERGENSIS H. antecessor (780,000 years old), from Spain’s Atapuerca mountains, possible common ancestor of Neandertals and anatomically modern humans (AMHs) H. heidelbergensis—massive fossil/jaw (500,000 years old) found in Heidelberg, Germany—may refer to group of hominins (700,000 – 200,000 years ago) described as either late H. erectus or archaic H. sapiens (transitional between Homo erectus and later hominins like Neandertals and AMHs)) 9-23  H. ANTECESSOR AND H. HEIDELBERGENSIS Stone flakes found on England’s Suffolk seacoast show that humans reached northern Europe 700,000 years ago Terra Amata, France, shows bands of 15 to 25 people made regular visits during late spring and early summer some 300,000 years ago Seasonal camp Animal bones, hearths, postholes; stone chips 9-24  H. ANTECESSOR AND H. HEIDELBERGENSIS Homo’s tolerance of environmental diversity increased Shown through distribution of fossils and tools found in Europe, Asia, and Africa Homo was on the move Archaic H. sapiens occupied Arago cave in southeastern France when Europe was bitterly cold Arago fossils have mixed features that seem transitional between H. erectus and the Neandertals 9-25 Figure 9.4: Timeline of Species within Genus Homo in Increments of 100,000 Years, from 2.5 m.y.a. Through the Present 9-26  THE NEANDERTALS First discovered in western Europe in Germany’s Neander Valley in 1856; originally thought Neandertals were from Europe Puzzling; no framework for understanding human evolution Fossils that are not Neandertals but have similar features (i.e. large faces and brows) are found in Africa and Asia Identification of Neandertal mtDNA announced in bones from sites in central Asia and Siberia Places Neandertals much farther east (into southern Siberia) than previously suspected 9-27 COLD-ADAPTED NEANDERTALS Neandertals were stocky, with large trunks and short limbs Phenotype minimizes surface area and conserves heat Massive nasal cavities of Neandertal fossils suggest they had long, broad noses to expand the area for warming and moistening air 9-28 COLD-ADAPTED NEANDERTALS Neandertals’ front teeth: extremely large, show evidence of wear Probably used for many jobs later done by tools Large brow ridge – designed to support considerable stress on front teeth Later Neandertals show decrease in robustness of back teeth and face suggests use of tools reduced heavy work of teeth Indicates smaller teeth may have been selectively favored 9-29  Mousterian Tool Kit Neandertal technology, a Middle Paleolithic tool tradition called Mousterian, improved during Würm - complex kit including at least 14 categories of tools - Flaking technique - Specific tools for specific tasks - Scrapers used to prepare animal hides for clothing - Larger points were attached to spears - Other special tools were designed for sawing, gouging, and piercing 9-30  Figure 9.5: Middle Paleolithic Tools of the Mousterian Toolmaking Tradition 9-31  THE NEANDERTALS AND MODERN PEOPLE Prevailing view says that H. erectus split into separate groups, one ancestral to Neandertals, the other ancestral to AMHs AMHs then drove Neandertals to extinction by moving into their territories Some scientists still believe Neandertals could have contributed to ancestry of modern Europeans Neandertals differed from AMHs Heavy brow ridges and slanting foreheads Larger cranial capacity Comparatively rugged skeletons and faces Huge front teeth Greater sexual dimorphism 9-32  THE NEANDERTALS AND MODERN PEOPLE Errors helped create inaccurate stereotype of Neandertals Differences exaggerated on basis of misinterpretation of La Chapelle-aux-Saints find that he was aging and had osteoarthritis Some argue Neandertals contributed to ancestry of anatomically modern Europeans Cite fossils that combine Neandertal robustness with modern features 9-33  Life as a Neandertal Lived in cold areas Strongly attached to families and local communities Empathy and sympathy – cared for disabled; buried their dead Used some form of language (maybe tones or whistles) which allowed them to communicate, coordinate, and plan ahead Excellent mechanical skills (i.e. spear head with intricately fastened point) Hunting was close range (lacked a spear thrower) Victims of cannibalism – El Sidron Cave (Tunnel of Bones) Moved within particular territory (home range); little contact with outsiders; no evidence of trade Unchanging tool design (Mousterian) No art Did not borrow techniques of spear throwers Unwillingness or inability to borrow or innovate put them at disadvantage in competing with AMHs for shrinking resources in the Ice Age (around 30,000 years ago) 9-34  The Denisovans Distant Neandertal cousins Denisova – cave in Southern Siberia Finger fragment and wisdom tooth Extracted entire genome Girl with brown skin, hair, and eyes Wisdom tooth does not resemble that of AMHs or Neandertals Lived in Asia 400,000 – 50,000 years ago Split with Neandertals about 400,000 years ago Neandertals spread west, Denisovans headed east AMHs remained in Africa 9-35  HOMO FLORESIENSIS Few researchers imagined that a different human species had survived through 12,000 B.P. until this discovery Discovery of bones and tools of group of tiny humans in Flores, Indonesia (2004) Different human species; downsized version of H. erectus Shows that archaic humans survived much later than had been thought Remains date from 95,000 to 13,000 B.P. Most surprising feature – very small skulls (slightly smaller than chimp); cast doubt on cultural abilities. However: Appear to have controlled fire Stone tools more sophisticated than those of H. erectus Island was inhabited by select group of animals, including H. floresiensis Faced unusual evolutionary forces that pushed some toward gigantism and some toward dwarfism (carnivorous lizards became giants; elephants evolved to a dwarf form) Population wiped out by volcanic eruption around 12,000 B.P. Further analysis, especially of the feet, has led scientists to question whether it is descendent of H. erectus or is a more primitive hominin ancestor (disproportionally large flat feet; similar to African apes; bone that helps form the arch in modern human feet was more ape-like; without strong arch, they would have walked but not run like humans) 9-36