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Questions and Answers
What was the key adaptive strategy employed by early Homo species around 2 million years ago?
What was the key adaptive strategy employed by early Homo species around 2 million years ago?
What is the significance of the skull classified as H. rudolfensis?
What is the significance of the skull classified as H. rudolfensis?
Where was the first representation of Homo habilis discovered?
Where was the first representation of Homo habilis discovered?
Approximately how long ago did Homo erectus evolve?
Approximately how long ago did Homo erectus evolve?
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What distinguishes H. habilis from earlier hominins?
What distinguishes H. habilis from earlier hominins?
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What feature of H. habilis suggests a greater tree-climbing ability?
What feature of H. habilis suggests a greater tree-climbing ability?
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What does the debate surrounding H. rudolfensis primarily focus on?
What does the debate surrounding H. rudolfensis primarily focus on?
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When did A. boisei go extinct?
When did A. boisei go extinct?
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What is a significant finding regarding the species H.habilis and H.erectus?
What is a significant finding regarding the species H.habilis and H.erectus?
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How did the reliance on hunting contribute to the ecological separation of H.erectus?
How did the reliance on hunting contribute to the ecological separation of H.erectus?
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What main effect did the development of tools have on Homo species?
What main effect did the development of tools have on Homo species?
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What physical adaptations did Homo erectus have that contributed to their survival?
What physical adaptations did Homo erectus have that contributed to their survival?
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What does the fossil record suggest about H.erectus and H.habilis?
What does the fossil record suggest about H.erectus and H.habilis?
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What is indicated by the greater sexual dimorphism found in H.erectus?
What is indicated by the greater sexual dimorphism found in H.erectus?
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What was a significant cultural change that allowed Homo erectus to spread out of Africa?
What was a significant cultural change that allowed Homo erectus to spread out of Africa?
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What distinguishes Acheulean tools from Oldowan tools?
What distinguishes Acheulean tools from Oldowan tools?
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What developmental change in the jaw structure is linked to the use of tools in H.erectus?
What developmental change in the jaw structure is linked to the use of tools in H.erectus?
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What is the estimated cranial capacity of H.erectus?
What is the estimated cranial capacity of H.erectus?
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What was the average cranial capacity of Homo erectus compared to australopithecines?
What was the average cranial capacity of Homo erectus compared to australopithecines?
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What does the refinement of tool-making techniques during the Paleolithic suggest about Homo erectus?
What does the refinement of tool-making techniques during the Paleolithic suggest about Homo erectus?
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What role did better tools play in the survival strategy of early Homo species?
What role did better tools play in the survival strategy of early Homo species?
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Which of the following best describes the lifestyle of Homo erectus during their migration?
Which of the following best describes the lifestyle of Homo erectus during their migration?
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What is the significance of H. erectus's cranial capacity in relation to speech?
What is the significance of H. erectus's cranial capacity in relation to speech?
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What characteristic was key to the efficiency of Acheulean tools?
What characteristic was key to the efficiency of Acheulean tools?
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What was the primary material used by Homo erectus for tool-making according to Paleolithic traditions?
What was the primary material used by Homo erectus for tool-making according to Paleolithic traditions?
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Which location is noted for the discovery of the earliest H. erectus fossil?
Which location is noted for the discovery of the earliest H. erectus fossil?
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What does the discovery of Dmanisi fossils indicate about H. erectus?
What does the discovery of Dmanisi fossils indicate about H. erectus?
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Which group does archaic H. sapiens encompass?
Which group does archaic H. sapiens encompass?
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What brain size is associated with archaic H. sapiens?
What brain size is associated with archaic H. sapiens?
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What is a primary reason for the increased range of H. erectus?
What is a primary reason for the increased range of H. erectus?
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Which of the following best characterizes the Pleistocene epoch?
Which of the following best characterizes the Pleistocene epoch?
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What did the rounded brain case of archaic H. sapiens indicate?
What did the rounded brain case of archaic H. sapiens indicate?
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What physical characteristics differentiated Neandertals from anatomically modern humans (AMHs)?
What physical characteristics differentiated Neandertals from anatomically modern humans (AMHs)?
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Which of the following best describes a social behavior exhibited by Neandertals?
Which of the following best describes a social behavior exhibited by Neandertals?
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What is one theory regarding the coexistence of Neandertals and anatomically modern humans?
What is one theory regarding the coexistence of Neandertals and anatomically modern humans?
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What evidence is presented to support the idea that Neandertals contributed to the ancestry of modern Europeans?
What evidence is presented to support the idea that Neandertals contributed to the ancestry of modern Europeans?
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What misconception about Neandertals has been perpetuated over time?
What misconception about Neandertals has been perpetuated over time?
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What significant event occurred during the Würm glacial period?
What significant event occurred during the Würm glacial period?
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What does H. antecessor potentially represent in human evolution?
What does H. antecessor potentially represent in human evolution?
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Which site shows evidence of early human occupation in Europe around 300,000 years ago?
Which site shows evidence of early human occupation in Europe around 300,000 years ago?
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How did Homo's environmental tolerance change during the Pleistocene?
How did Homo's environmental tolerance change during the Pleistocene?
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What is the proposed time frame of H. heidelbergensis according to fossil records?
What is the proposed time frame of H. heidelbergensis according to fossil records?
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What transitional features are observed in Arago cave fossils?
What transitional features are observed in Arago cave fossils?
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Which hominin group is considered transitional to both H. erectus and later hominins like Neandertals?
Which hominin group is considered transitional to both H. erectus and later hominins like Neandertals?
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What was indicated by the stone flakes found on England’s Suffolk seacoast?
What was indicated by the stone flakes found on England’s Suffolk seacoast?
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Study Notes
Anthropology: Appreciating Human Diversity
- Fifteenth Edition by Conrad Phillip Kottak, University of Michigan
- Copyright ©2013 McGraw-Hill Companies. All Rights Reserved.
Chapter 9: Archaic Homo
- Covers Early Homo, Out of Africa I: H. erectus, Archaic H. Sapiens, The Neandertals, and Homo floresiensis
- Key Questions:
- Earliest forms of Homo, origin, and migration?
- Major toolmaking traditions and adaptive strategies of archaic Homo?
- Characteristics of Neandertals and differences from other Homo forms?
Early Homo
- Approximately 2 million years ago (mya), two distinct hominin groups emerged: early Homo and Australopithecus boisei (hyper-robust).
- Australopithecus boisei went extinct around 1 mya.
- Homo evolved into Homo erectus by 1.9 mya.
- Dental, facial, and cranial robustness of australopithecines reduced in early Homo forms.
- Homo began hunting large animals to supplement gathering and scavenging.
H. rudolfensis and H. habilis
- H. rudolfensis based on KNM-ER 1470 skull, found by Leakey and Ngeneo in Kenya.
- Mixture of Homo and Australopithecus features.
- Larger brain size than Australopithecus; similar to Homo.
- Molars more like hyperrobust Australopithecus.
- Debate whether a separate species or part of Homo habilis; lived earlier or at same time as Homo habilis.
- Several different hominin kinds lived in Africa before and after the advent of Homo.
H. habilis and H. erectus
- First Homo habilis representation found at Olduvai Gorge (1960) by Leakeys; dated to 1.8 mya.
- Another Homo habilis individual (OH62) – small female with apelike limb bones; suggests greater tree-climbing ability than later hominins.
- Cranial capacity: 600-700 cm³.
- Unexpectedly small size and primitive proportions given knowledge of Homo erectus in East Africa.
- By 1.6 mya, H. erectus attained cranial capacity of 900 cm³ and modern body shape and height.
H. habilis and H. erectus (Sister species)
- Recent fossil finds from Kenya show H. habilis and H. erectus overlapped (not ancestor-descendent relationship).
- Sexual dimorphism in H. erectus is greater than expected (compared to chimps or modern humans).
- H. habilis and H. erectus split from a common ancestor prior to 2 mya and lived side-by-side in eastern Africa for approximately 500,000 years.
- Separate species for a long time suggests they had their own ecological niches, avoiding direct competition.
- Fossil record: H. rudolfensis (2.03-1.78 mya), H. habilis (1.9-1.44 mya), H. erectus (1.9-1.0 mya).
H. habilis and H. erectus (Significance of Hunting)
- Ecological niche separating H. erectus from H. habilis and A. boisei likely involved greater reliance on hunting and improved adaptation, including better tools.
- With emergence of H. erectus, there is a rapid increase in number and diversity of tools.
- Tools enabled Homo to:
- Acquire meat more reliably
- Use hides after butchering
- Dig and process tubers, roots, nuts, and seeds more efficiently
- Batter, crush, and pulp coarse vegetation
- Developments eased chewing burden; chewing muscles reduced; smaller dentition & jaws.
Homo erectus
- Cultural manipulation of environment allowed H. erectus to exploit a wider range of ecological zones.
- Stronger skulls and better-protected brains; better survival rates when hunting large animals.
- Skull base expanded; spongy bone ridge for massive neck muscle attachment.
- Average cranial capacity increased from ~500 cm³ in australopithecines to ~1,000 cm³ in Homo erectus.
Out of Africa I: H. erectus
- Biological and cultural changes enabled H. erectus to employ gathering and hunting strategies.
- Enabled H. erectus movement out of Africa into Asia and Europe.
- Through population growth and dispersal, small groups gradually spread and changed.
- Fueled by a lifestyle based on hunting and gathering; searching for meat.
Paleolithic Tools
- Paleolithic (Old Stone Age): Includes technique differentiation.
- Best stone tools made from flint which fractures sharply when hammered.
- Marked by technique refinement and recognizable toolmaking traditions (different tools for different purposes).
Acheulean: Lower Paleolithic Tools
- Acheulean: Lower Paleolithic tool tradition associated with H. erectus (at least 1.76 mya).
- Core bilaterally and symmetrically chipped in a predetermined shape.
- Chipping produced flakes.
- Hand axes used for many tasks.
- Predetermined shapes indicated a cognitive leap between early hominins and H. erectus.
- Greater efficiency; tools predetermined form & specific tasks; increasingly complex technology.
Adaptive Strategies of H. erectus
- Interrelated changes in biology and culture increased human adaptability (capacity to live in and modify wider environments).
-
Biology:
- Bipedalism (larger and longer legs facilitated long-distance stalking and endurance).
- Bony ridge at rear and front of skull (likely protected brain, increased hunting survival rates).
- Large brow ridges & front teeth (likely for pulling large animals).
- Reduced molar size (likely reduced chewing demands).
- Increased cranial capacity (~1000 cm³) doubling australopithecine average.
- Face and jaw smaller than australopithecines.
Adaptive Strategies of H. erectus (Cultural Adaptations)
- Hunting and gathering economy helped Homo erectus expand their environment and migrate.
- Improved tools:
- More diverse tools, aided in hunting and gathering
- Meat more reliably acquired, hides used for clothing, tubers, nuts, seeds processed efficiently.
- Tools include dig/process tubers, roots, nuts, and seeds..
- Technology aided in meat acquiring and hides use.
- Fire: Hearths confirm fire use, aided in cave occupation, protection from predators, surviving cold, and cooking.
- Cooking breaks down vegetable fibers, tenderizes meat, kills parasites, making meat more digestible, reducing chewing strain.
Language
- Was language an additional advantage for socially complex activities and technologies like Acheulean tools, cooperative hunting, and H. erectus's cranial capacity?
- Speech aided in coordination, cooperation, and learning traditions.
- No definite evidence, but ape language potential and H. erectus's brain size suggest some speech form.
Evolution and Expansion of H. erectus
- Dmanisi fossils (Georgia): One complete and two partial skulls (1.77-1.7 mya); rapid spread of early Homo out of Africa into Eurasia by 1.7-1.77 mya, likely in search of meat.
- Java Man: Earliest H. erectus fossil found in Indonesian Island of Java; fossils also found in Tanzania, China, Europe
- Increased range in pursuit of meat.
H. antecessor and H. heidelbergensis
- H. antecessor (780,000 years old): Spain's Atapuerca mountains; possible common ancestor of Neandertals, and modern humans.
- H. heidelbergensis (500,000 years old): massive fossil jaw found in Heidelberg, Germany. Possible transitional group between Homo erectus and later hominins like Neandertals and modern humans.
H. antecessor and H. heidelbergensis (further details)
- Stone flakes found on England's Suffolk seacoast show that humans reached northern Europe 700,000 years ago.
- Terra Amata, France, shows bands of 15-25 people made regular visits during late spring and early summer some 300,000 years ago.
- Seasonal camp evidence: animal bones, hearths, postholes; stone chips.
- Homo's tolerance of environmental diversity increased, indicated by fossil and tool distribution (Europe, Asia, and Africa).
- Archaic H. sapiens occupied Arago cave in southeastern France during a bitterly cold period.
- Arago fossils possess mixed features, transitional between H. erectus and Neandertals.
Recap 9.1: Summary of Data on Homo Fossil Groups
- Fossil representatives of the genus Homo, compared with anatomically modern humans (AMHs) and chimps (Pan troglodytes)
- Species, Dates, Distribution, Important Sites, and Brain Size.
Ice Ages of the Pleistocene
- Pleistocene: Epoch of human life.
- Each subdivision associated with specific hominin groups.
- Lower Pleistocene: late Australopithecus and early Homo.
- Middle Pleistocene: Homo erectus and archaic Homo sapiens.
- Upper Pleistocene: Modern Homo sapiens and Neandertals.
- Several glacials (ice ages), separated by interglacials (extended warm periods).
- Würm: Last glacial period (75,000 - 12,000 B.P.).
- Interstadials: brief periods of relative warmth during the Würm glacial.
The Neandertals
- First discovered in Germany's Neander Valley in 1856; initially believed European-origin.
- Puzzling: no clear framework for understanding human evolution.
- Fossils with similar features (large faces and brows) found in Africa and Asia.
- Identified Neandertal mtDNA in bones from central Asia and Siberia; much further east than previously suspected.
Cold-Adapted Neandertals
- Stocky build with large trunks and short limbs to minimize surface area and conserve heat.
- Massive nasal cavities suggest long, broad noses to warm and moisten air.
- Extremely large front teeth; possibly used for various tasks before tools.
- Later Neandertals show reduced robustness in back teeth and face; suggests tool use reduced heavy work on teeth. Smaller teeth favored
Mousterian Tool Kit
- Neandertal technology (Middle Paleolithic) called Mousterian improved during Würm; complex kit of at least 14 categories of tools.
- Flaking technique; specific tools for specific tasks (scrapers, larger spear points).
- Evidence of hide preparation and tool use for sawing, gouging, and piercing.
The Neandertals and Modern People
- Prevailing view: H. erectus split into groups, one ancestral to Neandertals, one to modern humans.
- Modern humans drove Neandertals to extinction by moving into their territories.
- Some scientists believe Neandertals contributed to modern European ancestry.
- Neandertals differed from modern humans:
- Heavy brow ridges, slanting foreheads.
- Larger cranial capacity.
- Rugged skeletons, faces, and huge front teeth.
- Greater sexual dimorphism.
- Errors helped create inaccurate stereotypes of Neandertals (based on misinterpretation of La Chapelle-aux-Saints example).
- Some argue Neandertals contributed to modern European ancestry. Fossils show combination of Neandertal robustness with modern features.
Life as a Neandertal
- Lived in cold areas; strongly attached to families and local communities.
- Showed empathy (cared for disabled; buried their dead).
- Used language (possibly tones, whistles).
- Excellent mechanical skills (intricately fastened spear heads)
- Hunting close range (lacked spear thrower).
- Victims of cannibalism (evidence exists from El Sidrón Cave)..
- Lived within a localized territory and had little contact with outsiders; no trade evidence..
- Unchanging tool design (Mousterian).
- Did not borrow techniques.
The Denisovans
- Distant Neandertal cousins in Denisova cave (Southern Siberia).
- Finger fragment and wisdom tooth (extracted full genome); girl with brown hair, skin, and eyes.
- Wisdom tooth differed from modern humans and Neandertals.
- Lived in Asia (400,000-50,000 years ago).
- Split from Neandertals ~400,000 years ago.
- Neandertals spread West, Denisovans headed East, Modern humans remained in Africa.
Homo floresiensis
- Small human species surviving until 12,000B.P.
- Discovered in Flores, Indonesia (2004).
- Likely a downsized version of Homo erectus.
- Survived much longer than previously thought (95,000-13,000 B.P).
- Brain size smaller than chimpanzees, casting doubts on cultural abilities. -Controlled fire; sophisticated stone tools (more sophisticated than those of H. erectus).
- Island-dwelling species; faced unusual evolutionary forces that caused some to evolve giantism and dwarfism (e.g., massive lizards, dwarf elephants).
- Population wiped out by volcanic eruption around 12,000 B.P.
- Anatomy analysis suggests a more primitive hominin or descendant of H. erectus.
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